This study utilized the knowledge–attitude–behavior (KAB) framework to examine the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of water conservation among Fairview community members (first objective). The KAB model posits that the accumulation or possession of knowledge in a certain domain will gradually influence an individual's attitude, subsequently driving a change in their behavior (Li et al., 2023; Recio-Román et al., 2024). This model has been frequently applied in various contexts, particularly in understanding pro-environmental behaviors (Recio-Román et al., 2024). According to this model, pro-environmental behaviors are based on a linear progression or possession of environmental knowledge leading to environmental awareness and concern (environmental attitudes), which in turn lead to pro-environmental behavior (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2010; Nguyen et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2025). Oremo et al. (2019) propose a similar model, the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) model, which states that better knowledge and understanding of water resource management issues are a precondition for sustainable water resource management. According to the KAB model, individuals must possess adequate knowledge or be willing to learn about environmental issues before engaging in pro-environmental actions (Lee et al., 2022; Nguyen et al., 2025, 2017).

Oremo et al. (2019) state that the KAB and/or KAP models are useful for evaluating information on what is known, what is believed, and what is being done in relation to a particular issue, in this case, water conservation. Knowledge refers to what is known (declarative), how it is known (procedural), whereas attitude is defined as belief (Li et al., 2023). Acquiring knowledge results in the formation of either favorable or unfavorable opinions (attitudes) regarding a product. “Behaviour” is a positive or negative attitude translated into anti- or pro-environmental behaviors (Recio-Román et al., 2024). In the context of this study, knowledge is the awareness and understanding of water conservation practices and the methods used to convey them. Attitudes are positive or negative beliefs about water conservation, and behavior refers to pro- and/or anti-environmental actions related to water conservation. The members of the Fairview community are required to demonstrate and rate their knowledge of water conservation and attitudes toward specific water conservation practices on a Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Studies on water conservation knowledge and behavior in emerging economies (including South Africa) remain scarce. Kleinhans et al. (2025) assessed communities' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding COVID-19 in Thabo Mofutsanyana District, South Africa. Owojori et al. (2022) examined rural students' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding solid waste management at the University of Venda in South Africa. One study applied the KAB in the water sector. However, the study assessed students' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene issues in specific schools within the Vhembe District of South Africa (Sibiya and Gumbo, 2013). Considering this, research on individuals' or households' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding water conservation (Nguyen et al., 2025) is needed, especially applying the KAB framework.

The following hypothesis guides this study:

H0: There is no significant relationship between demographic factors (gender, age, education, job type) and the following beliefs: (1) water taps must be closed when not in use; (2) waste disposal must be done far away from water sources; (3) groundwater pollution must be avoided; and (4) water rationing is acceptable during water scarcity.

H1: There is a significant relationship between demographic factors (gender, age, education, job type) and the following beliefs: (1) water taps must be closed when not in use; (2) waste disposal must be done far away from water sources; (3) groundwater pollution must be avoided; and (4) water rationing is acceptable during water scarcity.

H0: There is no significant correlation between knowledge of conserving water and the following beliefs: (1) water taps must be closed when not in use; (2) waste disposal must be done far away from water sources; (3) groundwater pollution must be avoided; and (4) water rationing is acceptable during water scarcity.

H1: There is a significant correlation between knowledge of conserving water and the following beliefs: (1) water taps must be closed when not in use; (2) waste disposal must be done far away from water sources; (3) groundwater pollution must be avoided; and (4) water rationing is acceptable during water scarcity.

The study was conducted within the Fairview community, which falls under the authority of the Harry Gwala District Municipality (HGDM), located southwest of the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal (Figure 1). In 2019, the HGDM had a population of 505,220, accounting for 1.0% of South Africa's total, and between 2009 and 2019, its growth averaged 0.76% per year, roughly half the national rate of 1.61% (Harry Gwala District Municipality, 2020). The population breakdown revealed 96.88% Africans, 1.19% White, 1.56% Colored, and 0.36% Asian, while females constitute 52.65% and males 47.35% in the district. The HGDM is primarily rural, characterized by natural vegetation, and features small urban settlements surrounded by larger agricultural estates and commercial forestry plantations (Harry Gwala District Municipality, 2022). The most important economic activities are trade, followed by commercial agricultural enterprises, such as dairy farming, which supplies 10% of all milk consumed in South Africa, and 35% of Clover's total milk intake, and cash crops such as maize and potatoes (Harry Gwala District Municipality, 2020). Bulk water supply for numerous local municipalities within the district is a role and authority of district councils, such as HGDM. The HGDM in South Africa has inherited a historical legacy of significant water supply backlogs, standing at 36% as of 2022. The HGDM's mission emphasizes delivering sustainable water and sanitation services through collaboration with communities and stakeholders.

This study adopted a mixed-methods research approach, specifically a concurrent explanatory design. Using this approach, quantitative data were collected first through a questionnaire to assess demographic information and knowledge of water conservation and its practices among Fairview community members. This allowed us to first describe demographic characteristics and responses to their knowledge of water conservation practices. Following the quantitative analysis, qualitative data were gathered through interviews with managers from the Department of Water Services at HGDM to further explore and explain the initial survey findings and their knowledge of opportunities arising from water scarcity in HGDM. By integrating both data types, the explanatory design enabled us to triangulate our findings and deepen our understanding of participants' attitudes and behaviors toward water conservation.

The study employed systematic sampling to select 120 Fairview households from a target population of 6,000 households. The XLSTAT sample size calculator was used to determine the optimal sample size, balancing practicality and representativeness. To do this, the researchers used a sampling interval of 50 by dividing the population of 6,000 by the intended sample size of 120. They then chose a starting household at random from the list to participate in the survey and selected every 50th household thereafter. The study uses systematic sampling to avoid bias and ensure representative results. These households were given questionnaires; 110 returned them, yielding a 91.7% response rate. The remaining nine were due to non-response, and one had missing details on the socio-demographic section and responses on knowledge of water conservation. The high response rate was achieved through the provision of the researcher's contact details or those of affiliated institutions for any doubts or queries, clear and straightforward instructions for completing the questionnaire, and the use of the local language in the questionnaire. The target population of key informants for this study, who were to provide qualitative data, consisted of 12 managerial employees from the Department of Water Affairs at the HGDM. The sample population consisted of eight managers (n = 8) who were willing to participate. Preliminary data collection also revealed that data saturation was reached at eight participants, a figure that coincided with the number of participants willing to participate in the study.

The quantitative section of the study employed a questionnaire survey consisting of multiple-choice questions. Questionnaires were the primary source of data in this study from 25 September 2021 to 30 November 2021. The authors obtained a register and contact numbers for Fairview community residents/water customers from the HGDM Water Services Department, as the former used these contacts to communicate water bills and other municipal issues. The researchers predominantly used online questionnaires to collect data from the Fairview community to prevent the spread of COVID-19. However, for community members without internet access, researchers used telephone calls to determine the preferred method for receiving questionnaires. The few who had internet access problems chose paper-based questionnaires, and these were posted to the respondents' addresses as obtained from the HGDM register. After completing the questionnaires, they had to send them via PostNet at the researcher's cost. Verification of respondents' membership in the Fairview community was conducted using screening questions in the questionnaire, such as “how long have you lived in this community?” and “what water services do you use?” Age verification was conducted to ensure that all respondents were adults by including a mandatory question that required participants to indicate their age group. Responses from those aged 18 and older were the only accepted responses, while those from under 18 were disregarded to ensure compliance with ethical standards.

They contained questions about the assessment of community members' knowledge of water conservation, which was conducted via a survey questionnaire. A pilot study was conducted by purposively selecting two senior employees from the HGDM and 10 members of the Fairview community. Respondents indicated their level of agreement with the five statements on a 5-point Likert scale, providing a quantitative measure of their perceptions regarding water conservation. They were to choose from: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Uncertain (U), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). Statement 1 assessed declarative knowledge among Fairview community members and aligned with the “Knowledge” element of the KAB model. Statement 2–5 measured the “Attitude” component of the model.

They were written in three languages, IsiZulu, isiXhosa, and English, since the study was done in a predominantly rural setting where some residents might not be conversant with English. The questionnaire included the author's contact details and institutional affiliation to ensure that respondents who had queries could contact the author or the affiliated institution.

The study's qualitative component used standardized and in-depth interviews to collect data from the eight HGDM managers in the Water Services department. All eight managers had valuable perspectives stemming from their extensive experience, ranging from 5 to 15 years, in different sections of the Water Services Department. Open-ended questions in the interview schedule focused on collecting information about water conservation practices, especially procedural knowledge and pro-water-conservation behaviors among the Fairview community (Table 1). These responses address the “Knowledge” component of the KAB model. The study also collected data from HGDM managers on strategies to address administrative deficiencies in the Water Services Department to alleviate chronic water shortages in the Fairview community. Online interviews were used to avoid putting researchers or participants at risk of contracting COVID-19. The managers had the option to choose a telephone interview, Skype, Teams, Zoom, or Google Hangouts to avoid direct contact and maintain social distancing. If participants agreed to online interviews, prior permission was sought to audio-record them. Additionally, measures were taken to securely store and manage the data in line with POPIA requirements. During the telephone interview, the researchers explained the purpose of the study and ensured the participant's consent to record the conversation and take notes. The researcher transcribed the manager's interviews verbatim to maintain the accuracy and integrity of the data.

The study adhered to various ethical practices and principles by providing information regarding the research's objectives, the rights, and their responsibilities to the Fairview community and HGDM's managers. The researcher sought permission to conduct research in the area from both HGDM and local leaders. The participants were also informed of their right to voluntarily participate in the research and to withdraw at any time. Participants were invited to participate in the research after formally indicating their consent by signing a consent form. Confidentiality was safeguarded by placing all research materials in an office and a cupboard under lock and key, and by storing data on a password-protected computer, whilst anonymity was ensured by using pseudonyms for the respondents. Respondents were given pseudonyms based on letters of the alphabet.

For quantitative data analysis, a statistician was sought to assist. Descriptive statistics were calculated using SPSS (Version 24; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). SPPS was also used to conduct chi-square and correlation tests on the relationship between socio-demographic factors and the five items measuring knowledge and attitudes toward water conservation behaviors. For qualitative data analysis, the transcripts/audios from the eight managers were uploaded into Atlas. TI 25 software for analysis. Segments of interest were created and coded manually and concurrently. The study employed inductive coding. These codes were grouped into themes.

The questionnaire's reliability (ability to obtain consistent results when the study is repeated) as a tool for collecting quantitative data was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, calculated in SPSS (Table 1). Generally, a reliability value of 0.60 or higher indicates that the instrument or scale measures the construct consistently and reliably. The overall reliability coefficient was 0.780, suggesting that the five items (on water conservation knowledge) effectively measured the constructs in a consistent and reliable manner.

The validity of the quantitative data was also evaluated. Validity assesses how accurately and truthfully research findings represent the reality being investigated. Bartlett's test and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test were employed to assess the suitability of the data for factor analysis. Bartlett's test yielded a value of 0.000, indicating that the data were appropriate for factor analysis, while the KMO score was 0.794. If the value of Bartlett's Test of Sphericity is less than 0.05 and the KMO Measure of Sampling Adequacy is 0.50 or higher, the results of the factor analysis are considered valuable and valid. Again, Principal Component Analysis was performed using the five variable (item) scores, which ranged from a moderate positive loading (0.651) to a strong positive loading (0.833). This suggests that the underlying theme was positively related to its variables.

To ensure qualitative data reliability, researchers utilized standardized in-depth interview schedules, ensuring that key informants received the same types of questions. Additionally, researchers underwent internal training on interview techniques. To enhance the credibility of the study's findings, interview transcripts were shared with participants for their feedback on whether the identified themes and concepts truly reflected their viewpoints. Researchers built rapport and trust with respondents by engaging in extensive discussions about the research items, which helped alleviate concerns that might have led respondents to withhold crucial information.

The data in Table 2 reveal significant insights into the demographics, which are important factors in influencing knowledge of water conservation practices and other beliefs. The most dominant group is the 18–35 age group, indicating that younger adults are likely to be more engaged with water conservation issues, as they are fresh from formal educational programs or initiatives focused on sustainable water practices. The majority of respondents are female, suggesting gender bias or an interest in community engagement on water conservation.

The demographic characteristics of managers from HGDM provide important insights into their professional backgrounds and qualifications (Table 3). The manager's group has a balanced gender distribution, reflecting an equitable representation of managerial roles within HGDM's Water Services department. The experience within the Water Services department varied among participants, ranging from 5 to 15 years, and participant 7 has the highest managerial experience of 15 years, indicating a wealth of knowledge in technical water services. The age distribution shows a blend of relatively young and more experienced water service professionals, which contributes to diverse perspectives in water services discussions. The equal representation of all genders, the blend of different experience levels, and educational qualifications suggest a managerial team aiming to address challenges in water management and infrastructure within the HGDM.

This section presents and triangulates views from Fairview community and HGDM managers on their knowledge about water conservation, as water is scarce in this municipality. Community members were to choose from Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Uncertain (U), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD). Table 4 presents the results of a survey conducted among Fairview community members regarding their knowledge of water conservation, along with descriptive statistics. This provides information on the “Knowledge” component (declarative knowledge) of the KAB model. Item 1 has a mean score of 3.95 (falling within the “Agree” category), suggesting that, on average, the Fairview community was positively inclined toward the statement that they have knowledge of conservation practices. The median of 5 indicates that at least half of the respondents chose “strongly agree,” and the mode of 5 further reinforces this strong consensus. The standard deviation of 1.48 suggests that a minority of residents express differing opinions; hence, the residents have knowledge of water conservation practices. These findings are confirmed by one of the managers from HGDM's water department, who stated:

The statement by one of the managers that community members in Fairview are “somehow advanced” in conserving water suggests a level of improvement or awareness that may not be consistent across the entire community. It implies that there might be significant gaps in knowledge or implementation. Further investigation into the extent of water conservation practices within the Fairview community is needed.

Item 2 in Table 4 measures the Fairview community's attitude toward closing water taps when not in use. This component measures the “Attitude” component in the KAB model. The mean score for Item 2 is 4.22, suggesting that Fairview community members again leaned positively toward the statement. The median and mode scores were 5, indicating that at least half of the Fairview community members strongly agreed with this practice. The standard deviation is 1.35, indicating that while many members strongly agree with the statement, some expressed differing opinions, particularly in the lower categories of agreement.

Manager 1 from HGDM also revealed:

Another manager from HGDM said:

These views align with the “Behaviour” element of the KAB model, as the Fairview community demonstrates pro-water-conservation behaviors: adult residents not only practice water-saving habits but also instill these values in youth. Efforts to teach the youths on water conservation practices address the “K” or procedural knowledge and “Bevahiour” component of the KAB model by inculcating the importance of closing water taps and one pro-water conservation method to the youth respectively. This cultural reinforcement underscores a community-oriented approach to water conservation. Another manager from HGDM stated:

The issuance of these notices by the HGDM water department underscores the need for improved, regular communication on water conservation practices. This practice constitutes the “knowledge” or procedural knowledge component of the KAB model, as notices given promote awareness of sustainable water use. The views also suggest that while community members acknowledge the importance of water conservation, there may have been gaps in awareness of and actions on water conservation practices prior to the implementation of these initiatives.

Item 3 focused on the views of the Fairview community on the siting of waste disposal facilities in relation to water sources. This item measured the “Attitude” component of the KAB model regarding the siting of waste disposal zones relative to water sources. Table 4 shows a mean score of 4.37, a median and mode of 5, indicating that at least half of the members of the Fairview community strongly agree with siting waste disposal facilities far from water sources. The calculated standard deviation is 1.17, indicating moderate variability in responses. Overall, the results reflect a predominantly positive view and attitude toward siting waste disposal facilities far from water sources. All genders largely have a positive attitude toward siting waste disposal facilities away from water sources, reflecting a shared commitment to protecting water quality, although there are some differences, particularly among female residents. The residents of Fairview were described by one manager as responsible individuals who are adopting pro-environmental behaviors to protect water quality. Manager 4 said:

The above views highlight pro-water-conservation and management behaviors among the Fairview community in protecting water quality. The community is going beyond the conservation of scarce water resources to protecting the quality of that resource. This constitutes the “Behaviour” element of the KAB model, as households translate water conservation knowledge into positive attitudes, which subsequently lead to pro-environmental behaviors. However, it also raises a key issue: a potential disconnect between these commendable practices and broader water conservation strategies. Although the community's efforts are beneficial, they do not necessarily address the underlying issues of water scarcity or inefficient usage.

Item 4 measures Fairview residents' attitudes toward protecting the quality of groundwater sources. Item 4 has a mean score of 4.18, indicating that the community has a positive inclination toward preventing groundwater pollution. Both the median and mode were 5, indicating strong consensus, as at least half of the respondents selected “strongly agree” for item 4. The standard deviation is 1.31, indicating moderate variability in responses. A strong majority of both male (82.7%) and female (78.2%) residents support preventing groundwater pollution, although there are minor differences of opinion, particularly among female residents. So, findings from these descriptive statistics show that the Fairview community has a positive attitude toward this item.

Item 5 further measures the Fairview community's attitude toward adopting water rationing during a water shortage. Results for Item 5 further show a mean score of 3.89, with a median and mode score of 5, indicating a strong consensus among many community members that promoting water rationing during times of water scarcity is warranted. The standard deviation was approximately 1.40, indicating a notable level of variability in responses. All genders have positive attitudes toward promoting water rationing during scarcity, though there is a minor disagreement, slightly higher among male residents than among female residents. This indicates a marginally more favorable attitude toward water rationing among female residents. This is supported by women who went an extra mile by adopting water reuse during water rationing days. One of the managers stated:

The above statement on water conservation behaviors aligns with positive views on adopting water rationing, reusing, and recycling when water is scarce. It further highlights women's resourcefulness and ingenuity in water conservation by finding alternative uses for water that would otherwise be discarded. Women are not only minimizing waste but also maximizing the utility of available scarce water resources. Their proactive behavior reflects not only their responsibility toward sustainable household water use but also their potential leadership in promoting conservation practices. Overall, HGDM managers confirm the community's positive engagement with water conservation practices, which aligns with residents' positive attitude toward them, though there may be a disconnect between the depth of knowledge and the diversity of these practices. Table 5 provides a summary of knowledge, attitudes, and pro-water-conservation behavior, guided by the KAB model and obtained from residents and HGDM.

This section presents the results of an inferential statistical analysis examining the relationship between socio-demographic factors and knowledge of water conservation, related attitudes, and behaviors. Chi-square and correlation tests were performed to examine the association between these variables. Table 6 summarizes the results of the Chi-square tests. The results show that socio-demographic factors, gender, education, and job type have no significant relationship with knowledge of water conservation practices and attitudes regarding the importance of closing taps. Again, these demographic factors do not influence attitudes toward the placement of waste disposal relative to water sources. However, age shows significant relationships with Items 1, 2, and 5, indicating that knowledge of water conservation practices, attitudes toward the importance of closing taps, and the adoption of water rationing during water-scarce days vary across age groups.

For items 3 and 4, socio-demographic factors such as age, education, and job type show no significant relationships with attitudes toward siting waste disposal zones near water sources and toward preventing groundwater pollution. Only gender has a significant relationship with these attitudes. In summary, these findings show that age and gender significantly influence some items, whereas other demographic factors, such as education and job type, do not show any relationships across the various beliefs about water conservation practices.

Table 7 summarizes the results of the Spearman correlation tests. Overall, the findings highlight weak to moderate positive correlations between knowledge of water conservation and various beliefs about water conservation practices. This suggests that increasing knowledge about water conservation may influence individuals to adopt more positive attitudes toward responsible water use and management.

HGDM managers were asked to share their views on opportunities arising from the water supply challenges in Fairview. Diverse responses were collected and grouped into three themes.