We included only those papers that primarily focused on watersheds, river basin management, and water rights and conflicts and published in peer-reviewed journals. Irrelevant articles that do not include eco-profile to manage watershed river basin management are excluded from this study (Figure 1).

The health of a river ecosystem is determined by its water flow. However, surface water and land properties of many major river basins remain largely unmonitored at basin scale (Uereyen and Kuenzer, 2019; Dwivedi et al., 2018). Several inventories exist, yet consistent spatial databases describing the status of major river basins at the global scale are lacking (Uereyen and Kuenzer, 2019). Eco-profile studies contribute to the protection of river hydrology and water flow through research that leads to the plan for improving the river basin functions (Figure 2) and regional ecology (McManamay et al., 2022). Globally, human activities have substantially affected the natural hydrologic cycles of rivers through land-use changes that directly affect river hydrology. Indirectly, urbanization creates impermeable surfaces that increase the volume and speed of storm runoff. River channels are often altered by the construction of dams, levees, and other channel modifications for flood protection, hydropower generation, and navigation. Strengthening of river courses facilitates navigation but reduces channel and flow complexity, thereby diminishing habitat diversity. The abstraction of the river basin affects the domestic water supply, agriculture irrigation channels, and water structures in the catchment regions.

Eco-profile studies contribute to preserving river hydrology and water flow by monitoring river flow. This helps to identify and understand the subsequent changes caused by human activities or environmental factors. River basin management requires the use of indicators to assess the health and alteration of hydrological systems at the basin scale. Eco-profile helps identify the indicators to evaluate the impact of human activities on river structure, disruption of longitudinal connectivity, and volumes of water within fluvial channels. This evaluation is crucial for the river basin ecosystem; it guides effective water resource management at the micro–macro scale (Lebel et al., 2013).

River basins are the most natural geomorphologic spatial units on the terrestrial landscape, which, if modified by humans, their soils and vegetation directly affect the delivery of water, sediments, and nutrients into these river drainage systems. Geological structures of rivers determine the geophysical and ecological processes related to surface water (Ghorbani Nejad et al., 2017; Fargnoli et al., 2013). Human activities such as mining, quarrying, and construction can significantly alter geological structures if the river basin is not monitored. To minimize the environmental impact of these activities, efficient resource extraction practices ensure proper restoration of disturbed sites. Eco-profile studies primarily focus on assessing ecological systems rather than geological structures, but they can be indirectly maintained by habitat preservation, land use planning, and erosion control.

Eco-profile studies involve a comprehensive assessment of ecosystems, their structure, function, and interactions, which helps to identify key components and processes necessary for ecosystem health. The study delivers public awareness and practices such as sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries to help minimize negative impacts on ecosystems while meeting human livelihood needs. Therefore, eco-profile studies contribute to the preservation of ecology and biodiversity by informing evidence-based conservation actions and promoting sustainable management practices. This necessitates species inventory and monitoring within a given ecosystem by tracking population size, distribution, and trends over time (Brauman, 2015; Finotto, 2011).

By eco-profile study, ecologists can detect changes that may indicate ecological imbalances or threats to biodiversity by identifying critical habitats for different species. Most of these threats are human-induced, including habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and the introduction of invasive species (Ramakrishnan et al., 2024). Such threats to environmental conditions that influence river basin functions and watershed health (Angriani et al., 2018). Hence, there is a need to conserve and preserve the river basin biodiversity through policies and legislation and by a systematic approach.

Improper management approaches in watershed and river basin regions result in the degradation of river basins in many parts of the world (Molle et al., 2010). It seriously threatens the natural resources of river basins, like soil and water resources (Hafizan et al., 2023; Geetha and Soman, 2019), mainly in developing countries (Diop et al., 2022; Pradhan et al., 2023).

India, China, Brazil, and Turkey recorded natural resource degradation in watershed regions (Molle et al., 2018; Kanyagui and Viswanathan, 2022). The successful formulation of national policies at the watershed level reduces the problem of natural resource degradation. However, it faced challenges in Indonesia and Morocco due to uncertainties involved in a community-based approach in managing watershed (Darghouth et al., 2008). Therefore, applying eco-profile studies in watershed management helps in addressing the community conflict which arise in the catchment area owned by the different communities. In eco-profile based watershed practices such as terraces, dam construction helps control excess runoff and subsequently improve the livelihoods of communities through potential irrigation and fishing income-generating activities. This holistic approach improves the natural resources of the river basin and leads to sustainable development.

Improving river basin functions and regional ecology often involves community engagement and awareness initiatives to minimize the damage associated with fire (Neeraja et al., 2021). Communities can participate in such activities through prescribed burns, invasive species removal, vegetation pruning, habitat restoration, and protection of forests in the river basins (Metlen et al., 2021; Kanyagui et al., 2024). Eco-profile studies contribute positively to the protection of natural ecosystems by evaluating watershed environmental conditions and their role in giving early fire warning signals involving remote sensing technology necessary to conserve river basin resources. Hence, efficient forest protection through a properly built road network can protect water quality for longer.

Historically, agricultural management practices mainly focused on crop yield rather than effects caused by nutrient load runoff into the water bodies (Ramakrishnan et al., 2024). Hence, agricultural practices require efficiency in order to reduce nutrient loads into rivers and protect the environment (European Environment Agency, 2020). Intensive farming practices may lead to land degradation (Maximillian et al., 2019; Khoiri et al., 2021), contributing to soil erosion, subsequent water siltation, and loss of ecosystem services (Scholes et al., 2018). Therefore, management practices proposed based on the eco-profile study in watershed regions, such as contour farming, zero tillage, and reforestation, contribute immensely (Marowa et al., 2023) and increase infiltration and reduce surface runoff (Khairy, 2022; Ricci et al., 2022). Eco-profile studies facilitates a better understanding of the changes occurring in watersheds and river basins over time and improvement plans for sustainable agriculture.

Fodder is a main source of nutrients for livestock, but its availability is limited in developing countries (Kumar et al., 2023). Eco-profile studies improve fodder production and suggest measures for efficient grassland management. It increases the carrying capacity of grazing land by regulating overgrazing and overexploitation practices (Koli and Bhardwaj, 2018). Singh et al. (2018) recommended the introduction of high-yielding grasses and pasture legumes using integrated silvi-pastural/horti-silvi pasture systems to improve the overall productivity in the watershed.

Additionally, infrastructure for straw management and storage has been neglected in many parts of the world. It can be revamped by eco-profile based approach that can contribute significantly to livestock feed. The study facilitates the design of stores and bunkers for straw, pellets, bales, blocks, and silage to have better payback (Singh et al., 2018). Hence, proper fodder management helps to conserve watersheds from overgrazing, degradation, and river siltation (Kumar et al., 2023).

Energy harvesting involves capturing and converting natural energy into usable forms of energy. River basin management contributes immensely to energy harvesting from rivers and water bodies through large-scale hydropower plants that generate significant amounts of electricity. Challenges emanate when some energy harvesting techniques, such as the run-of-river, divert a portion of a river’s flow regime, creating more negative impacts. It is advisable to promote alternative electricity-generating technologies, such as underwater turbines, tapping solar energy, and wind power, that have minimal environmental impacts compared to conventional hydropower projects.

Based on the case regarding the Gorges Dam in China, methods available for energy harvesting from river basins and watersheds may have environmental impacts, as indicated by site degradation, sedimentation, and community displacement (Cheng et al., 2018). Sustainable watershed conservation practices by communities contribute to the protection of water bodies from siltation and continue providing various energy forms. Hence, there is a need for eco-profile studies that continuously assess the conditions of the river basin, which facilitates sustainable methods to harvest energy from watersheds and river basins. The study also suggests alternative methods to store the sun energy in watershed regions and monitor the energy production impacts in long-term conditions.

River basins are a basic characteristic of the earth’s land surface system (Li et al., 2021), involving social, economic, and environmental interactions (Latour and Groen, 1994; Tesfaye et al., 2018) to achieve long-term benefits for both people and ecosystems (Cheng et al., 2018). Most human settlements are found within river basins due to its benefits, including freshwater supply, food production (Best, 2019), fisheries, and transportation (Meybeck et al., 2023). Therefore, benefits derived from river basin functions contribute to improving the resilience of rural people (Wen et al., 2023). Engaging rural communities enhances their livelihood and wellbeing (Kar et al., 2022) while ensuring sustainable management of water resources (Brauman, 2015). With this background, eco-profile studies help assess the impact of integrating various stakeholders in watershed management. It allows and encourages interactive sustainable strategies that address human needs and enhance the protection of water resources.

River basins support a range of economic activities such as agriculture, industry, tourism, and transportation to maximize benefits for all stakeholders while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and local communities. For instance, agriculture is a significant economic activity in many river basins (Syahputra et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2015). River basins often attract outdoor enthusiasts seeking recreational opportunities such as fishing, boating, and wildlife viewing. Such economic opportunities enhance tourism and recreation management in a way that preserves the basin’s natural beauty and cultural heritage while providing economic opportunities for local communities.

The eco-profile evaluation in watershed and river basin policy varies between countries and regions due to differences in institutional structures, policies, and laws. There is a need to modify and align the existing policies at the local level and implementation across the regional level (Fenta et al., 2023). In cases where local communities have limited knowledge of the potential benefits of policies, awareness is necessary (Hasan et al., 2023). Policies act as important legal frameworks in watershed and river basin management to address water conflict issues with an emphasis on supporting human livelihoods (Cavus et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2021). Integrated river basin and water resource management identifies critical factors for genuine stakeholder involvement in decision-making at the basin level to make more relevant and useful policies.

Countries like Tanzania and South Africa have initiated water sector reform programs that stress comprehensive river basin management with an eco-profile study (Yi et al., 2018), involving community users, government stakeholders, cost-benefits, and sustainable ecosystem resource use in river basin regions (Sulistyaningsih et al., 2021). However, multi-stakeholder involvement in river basin management in Indonesia leads to the abuse of centralistic authority and sometimes-overlapping roles, leading to sectoral conflicts in policy implementation in the Brantas watershed (Sulistyaningsih et al., 2021). The regulations were not designed for institutional arrangements that support the efficient functioning and management of the Brantas watershed (Rahmawati et al., 2014). Therefore, such policies should be improved to help understand the changing land use in watersheds (Sonu and Bhagyanathan, 2022). Previous studies on watershed governance focused on environmental conservation based on ecological perspectives (Kagaya and Wada, 2021), community participation (Kandicuppa et al., 2016), and sustainable development (Upadani, 2017). However, research focussing on eco-profile assessment in policy-making and watershed governance is limited.

Problems in watershed and river basin management (Curtis et al., 2005) continuously change every time due to natural and anthropogenic causes; for example, changes in the riverbank landscape may lead to increased erosion and floods, causing riparian zone shrinkage. Alternatively, intermittent monsoon rains in rainfed regions sometimes lead to increased runoff due to reduced infiltration, causing siltation, low water tables, and inadequate water resources (Hasan et al., 2023). Additionally, habitat disruption leading to biodiversity decline and diminishing biomass production negatively impacts water-based livelihood activities such as fisheries, gardening, and irrigation, leading to low economic status in rural areas. These challenges contribute to water conflicts in poorly managed ecosystems that require eco-profile based watershed and river basin management policies to help address the problems. Funding, institutional gaps, and economic and population growth problems contribute to conflicts within states and interstates. Conflict of interest leads to overlapping duties, naturally unbalanced distribution, and administrative disparities under multiple jurisdictions within river basins, which remains challenging (Cai and Zhang, 2018).

In most cases, effective solutions to conflicts in watershed and river basin management are rather complex and difficult. This is due to the limited institutional capacity to cope with most of the problems. A collaborative approach is necessary to bring success is an uphill task that depends on the design of the institutional arrangements and the ability of participants to reach a consensus through effective negotiation. However, it is in the interest of this paper to link the principles of the eco-profile assessment approach in addressing watershed and river basin conflict-associated challenges by identifying indicators of problems leading to such conflicts. Therefore, if problem-linked polices or frameworks are put in place, water rights and conflict challenges can be addressed starting at the local level with contributions from local people rather than a top-down approach. Such an approach directly contributes to community wellbeing and the protection of ecosystem values within the river basin.