Worldwide, an average of 205 million individuals have been reported to be affected annually by flood disasters, accounting for almost 47% of water-related disasters (Wahistrom and Guha-Sapir, 2015). Floods are classified as one of the hydrological hazards affecting many countries worldwide (Wahistrom and Guha-Sapir, 2015). The world has experienced flooding disasters that accounted for approximately 56% of weather-related disasters, including several significant flood events that took place in 2016 in countries like Romania, Germany, China, Ukraine, Paris-France, the United States, Russia, and Belgium, the UAE and South Africa (Rowe and Smithers, 2018).

The EM-DAT 2023 reported that flood disasters affected over 93 million humans and caused a total economic loss of almost US $202.7 billion globally, with floods contributing significantly. The impacts of floods combined with inadequate levels of disaster preparedness in countries, especially developing countries, may contribute to higher socioeconomic, physical, and environmental vulnerability levels (Abunyewah et al., 2018). Flood-related disasters have caused about 6.8 million fatalities globally in the 20th Century (Doocy et al., 2013). Psychological impacts and survivors suffering from distress of post floods are also reported by several studies (Alderman et al., 2012; Bei et al., 2013; Doocy et al., 2013).

Floods have also been reported by Aznar-Crespo et al. (2021) to have affected about 1.65 billion people and killed around 122,000 people while causing damages of about 563 billion US dollars all over the world between 2000 and 2019. However, studies of how floods affect the environment are neglected, especially in developing countries. Floods have been reported to change access to fresh water for communities that depend on groundwater for survival, alter crop production, cause violence within areas with limited environmental resources, and reduce production in aquatic ecosystems due to ocean acidification (Lieber et al., 2020). These are some of the negligible issues in the literature.

Several scholars reported floods to be commonly caused by heavy rainfalls. Other factors that play a significant role connected to flooding are poorly planned and constructed dwellings in low and middle-income areas (Pharoah, 2014; Istomina and Dobrovoski, 2014; Spilsbury and Spilsbury, 2017; Van Niekerk, 2011; Dahri and Abida, 2020). Heavy rainfall as a source of floods has become one of the traumatising events affecting lives and livelihoods (Elalem and Pal, 2015). The rainfall characteristics that determine the rate and scale of floods are the duration, area, depth, and measure of storm rainfall (Yang et al., 2019). Flooding, characterised by heavy rain, harms communities, especially township communities in South Africa (Haung et al., 2016). The higher the rainfall intensity, the greater it will result in floods (Jha et al., 2012). Most water-related disasters occur in developing countries (Wahistrom and Guha-Sapir, 2015). Demographics and socioeconomic pattern changes in these countries have significantly contributed to many losses when it comes to floods (Elalem and Pal, 2015). Furthermore, Fiorillo et al. (2018:2) argue that the increase in population growth and rapid urbanisation in these townships results in more vulnerability since urban areas or new settlements are likely to be established or are mostly to be expanded in flood-prone areas where land is free. According to De Silva and Kawasaki (2018), people reside in unsafe areas that make them vulnerable to water-related disasters such as floods to access resources.

Urban developments create land use changes, leading to increased flood disasters. Changes to water stream channels are likely to limit drainage of water flow during heavy rainfall, causing flash floods (Eduardo and Eliane, 2013). In most areas, flood damages increase because of inadequate drainage facilities, more so in developing countries (Fiorillo et al., 2018:2). This study, therefore, seeks to assess the causes and impacts of floods in two townships in South Africa by looking at the causes, the physical, socioeconomic and environmental effects of these flood disasters. In addition, the study will gauge the interventions of municipalities to assist the communities in dealing with these floods. The study will also assess the study communities’ preparedness for flood disasters. The study will contribute uniquely to the body of knowledge as it uncovers differences in the causes, impacts, and responses to floods in specific geographic (township) and socioeconomic contexts. The study’s findings could also highlight localised factors influencing vulnerability and resilience, which might not be evident in broader regional and national studies.

This study used a purely quantitative research approach to achieve the study’s objectives, which assessed the impacts of flood risks in Bronville and Hani-park townships in Welkom in the Free State Province of South Africa. These townships experienced flood disasters in 2019, making them a target population.

A purely quantitative study that is purposive was selected for this study as a specific population that met the predetermined answers from the quantitative questions was targeted. This approach is intentional and strategic, ensuring that the sample directly aligns with the study’s research objectives. Primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire with close-ended questions and predetermined responses. The authors developed and cross-referenced the questionnaire with seven questionnaires in the literature that investigated the impacts and causes of floods in other world regions. The reliability of the questionnaire was tested using the Cronbach Alpha in R software, and the value of 78% for the test was returned. In addition, the study was polluted with 10% of the selected population before actual data was collected. To test the validity of the questionnaire, a comprehensive literature review was conducted, and the review confirmed that the questions aligned with existing theories and frameworks.

Before data was collected, the authors explained the study’s critical ethical considerations underpinning the survey to the respondents. This study obtained ethical clearance from the University of the Free State General Human Ethics Research Committee (GHREC) under protocol UFS-HSD2020/1833/251.

This study investigated the causes of the flood disaster and its holistic impact on the Bronville and Hani Park townships of Matjhabeng District Municipality in the Free State province of South Africa. Structured questionnaires were administered to flood-affected households in the two communities. Basic inferential statistics was applied to find the relationships between variables of importance to this study. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents; even though this is a water-focused study, understanding the demographics of the study participants is crucial in most impact studies as impacts happen to people and communities in the disaster Management context.

We assessed the causes and impacts of floods in two flood-prone areas in the Free State Province of South Africa, and two demographic characteristics that stood out in the study were the respondents’ level of education and employment status. Of the 127 respondents, the majority of the respondents,63%, had secondary schooling. Most respondents, 47%, were unemployed and have significant implications for a study investigating the impacts and causes of floods in two townships, mainly when focusing on the physical, socioeconomic, and environmental effects, community preparedness, and municipal interventions. For example, most respondents with secondary schooling could influence their ability to understand and respond to flood risks as this is a moderate level of education. In addition, The interplay between educational attainment and unemployment highlights a dual vulnerability in the studied communities. Addressing flood impacts requires technical and infrastructural solutions and targeted socioeconomic interventions. Empowering communities through education and economic opportunities can enhance their resilience and reduce dependence on municipal aid during flood disasters.

The study also found key insights into community perceptions and experiences of flooding. The findings suggest that flooding is a common and recurring issue for many respondents. The study also highlights the importance of flood experiences, implying that these frequent flooding events may have noticeable impacts on daily life within the studied communities. Furthermore, the descriptive findings indicate that most respondents experience flooding each time it rains, and a significant proportion consider flooding a problem, rating it as a major issue in their community. Most report their homes as at risk, with inadequate drainage cited as the primary cause of flooding. The insights reveal the critical role of infrastructure deficiencies, such as drainage, in exacerbating flooding incidents.

The findings exposed a gap between frequent exposure to flooding and individual perceptions of its severity or associated risks. This gap may imply a lack of awareness of potential long-term flood risks. In addition, the lack of drainage systems was identified as a significant contributing factor to the community’s flooding challenges.

The study determined the physical, socioeconomic, and environmental impacts of floods and found that participants’ experiences of flooding in their households are closely linked to the damage reported in physical structures. Flooded escape routes and damaged furniture were frequently reported, highlighting the direct and often unavoidable disruptions floods cause to essential household infrastructure. This finding supports previous research that shows households are particularly vulnerable to physical damage from floods (Pham et al., 2020; Shah et al., 2020; Ullah et al., 2021).

The study concludes that flooding significantly affects household structures more escape routes than other structures. The results suggest that interventions to mitigate flood damage should prioritize common household vulnerabilities while recognising the varying resilience among specific physical structures.

The significant socioeconomic impact of flooding on the respondents and their communities showed a notable perception of flood impact on households and communities and the financial burden required to repair flood-related damages. The findings suggest that households experiencing more significant economic loss due to flood damages are more likely to report substantial socioeconomic challenges. The reported costs for repairing damages highlight the financial toll of floods, with a significant portion of households incurring expenses of R10,000 to over R15,000. This finding aligns with existing literature demonstrating that flood recovery can create substantial financial burdens, particularly for low-income families (Emrich et al., 2020; Rivera et al., 2022; Wilson et al., 2021).

Most respondents cited electricity cut-offs (ECO) as a prominent impact of flooding, reflecting the direct infrastructural impacts of floods and their effects on daily life. Electricity outages are critical as they disrupt economic productivity and social well-being, potentially leading to a cascading effect of vulnerabilities within the community. The widespread reporting of socioeconomic impacts suggests that floods challenge household stability and community resilience.

The study findings indicate a mixed impact of floods on the environment. However, the statistically significant result regarding water quality highlights that floods significantly affect drinking water quality within the community. This finding is consistent with a lot of studies that demonstrated how floods can lead to contamination of water sources through overflow of sewage systems (Hou et al., 2021), infiltration of pollutants (Cooper et al., 2019), and increased turbidity (Aldardasawi and Eren, 2021), all of which are detrimental to public health.

Additionally, the qualitative responses from participants suggest that the community associates flooding with environmental degradation through mechanisms such as vegetation loss, erosion, and the spread of invasive species.

The study further evaluated the role of municipal interventions during flooding in the study communities. The findings indicated that households are likelier to contact their municipality for assistance amidst flooding. However, the results suggest that, while many respondents experience considerable financial losses due to flooding, they may not seek or expect financial aid or compensation from the municipality. This lack of engagement could reflect a lack of awareness about available resources, a lack of trust in municipal response efficacy, or a perception that municipal intervention is insufficient or inaccessible.

Interestingly, most respondents did not report flood damages to the municipality or request reimbursement despite reporting significant personal financial loss. This lack of reporting or request for reimbursement may suggest barriers to accessing municipal support, such as limited awareness of available support programs or the perceived complexity of the reimbursement process. Additionally, the finding that many households used personal savings to recover from flood damage points to an urgent need for proactive support from municipalities, particularly for at-risk families.

The study lastly assessed the community’s preparedness for floods by evaluating factors associated with recovery from flooding events, examining the effectiveness and accessibility of early warning systems, and analyzing evacuation behaviors and motivations. The findings reveal that a significant proportion of respondents did not receive early flood warnings, and among those who did, social media was the most commonly cited source. This reliance on social media for warnings highlights a potential opportunity and vulnerability in the community’s communication network. While social media provides rapid information dissemination, it may lack reliability and consistency, especially in remote or under-resourced areas with limited internet access. Additionally, respondents who had been evacuated often reported doing so due to the presence of vulnerable individuals, such as elderly family members, in their households. This underscores the importance of addressing specific community needs that could influence evacuation decisions and impact resilience and recovery.

The study concludes that flood preparedness within the community is influenced by several critical factors, with early warning systems, evacuation history, and household demographics playing central roles. The significant associations between these factors and the respondents’ recovery outcomes indicate that better early warning systems and targeted evacuation support could significantly enhance community resilience to flooding. However, the lack of consistent early warning receipt across the population suggests that current communication strategies may be inadequate, with over-reliance on social media platforms posing risks for real-time response during emergencies.