In the context of the digital revolution, the literature found indicates a growing prevalence of immersive technologies in the educational settings (Bernate and Vargas, 2020; Martín-Ramallal, 2020; Mendoza, et al., 2023). However, the integration of these technologies has not unfolded as expected by many, as it is not presented as the definitive solution (Bernate and Vargas, 2020; Bruno, et al., 2020). This phenomenon is attributed to various factors, as identify by researchers, including limited funding, educators’ reluctance, and, in some cases, a lack of familiarity or technological knowledge necessary for the effective development and application of these tools (Jamaludin et al., 2020; Costan, et al., 2021; González and Valencia, 2022).

This phenomenon reveals the intricacies associated to the integration of immersive technologies in education, emphasizing a challenge that extend beyond the mere availability of tools. One key aspect that has garnered significant attention in recent years relates to the ethical dilemmas that may arise during the utilization of immersive technologies (Costan et al., 2021) -whether augmented, virtual, mixed reality, or within the emerging paradigm of the Metaverse-, in educational contexts.

Therefore, it is necessary to examine the existing academic literature to understand how researchers are approaching this scenario and whether substantial data has been provided to address these issues. This will ensure that the incorporation of immersive technologies into education is done in an ethical and responsible manner. The incorporation of immersive technologies in educational environments poses ethical challenges, such as ensuring equal access and promoting responsible use of these technologies for instructional purposes. Partarakis and Zabulis (2024) argue that improving technological literacy through education demands concerted efforts to equip individuals of all demographics to navigate new technologies. This entails creating robust educational programs and fostering a culture of lifelong learning.

In the context of accelerated technological development, the integration of different technologies in today’s society poses ethical challenges of considerable magnitude, especially when it comes to the inclusion of technology in education, which is why it is essential to establish the ethical principles mentioned. Gómez-Trigueros and Ortega-Sánchez (2022), citing Arroyo (2016), explain that ethical knowledge is a foundation that provides moral guidelines to promote appropriate and respectful interpersonal relationships. It promotes behaviours guided by shared values that contribute to building healthy and ethical relationships in society. Ethics in the use of technology thus refers to the principles and norms that guide behaviour and decisions related to technology, encompassing an assessment of what is deemed considered morally right or wrong in the development, use and consequences of digital technologies (Hagendorff, 2020; Mohammed, et al., 2020).

While many authors cited in the literature review this understanding of ethics in the use of technology is not unanimous, Bietti (2020) argues that the use of the term ethics in relation to technology poses challenges, as the term has been used by some technology companies to disguise dubious practices. Bietti (ibid.) counters these perceptions by arguing that both the overuse of the term ethics by some companies and the exaggerated criticism by others is a misunderstanding, as he believes ethics should not simply be a cover for dubious behavior or something that can be easily dismissed. On the contrary, he argues that ethics can be a valuable tool for evaluating technology policy strategies. It should not be seen as an obstacle, but as a compass that guides ethical decisions in an increasingly technological world.

In this inquiry, the second section introduces the intersection of advanced technologies (AR, VR and MxR mainly) and education, while the third section addresses ethical themes related to the Metaverse, a fully immersive advanced technology.

Partarakis and Zabulis (2024) in a systematic review on topics related to immersive technologies, they emphasize that key factors encompass the seamless integration of technologies, ethical considerations, accessibility, promotion of technological literacy through education, interoperability, user trust, environmental sustainability, and adherence to regulatory frameworks. Hence, society is tasked with addressing ethical challenges to ensure that immersive technologies are used responsibly and beneficially for the entire population. We provide an identification of ethical issues related to education in the field of immersive technologies.

In the context of responsible use of immersive technology, Christopoulos et al. (2021) have identified several new ethical issues in an intervention. These encompass various personal factors (e.g., potential threats) and classification issues (e.g., physical, psychological, moral). Chow et al. (2015) conducted a study on mobile and augmented reality usage aimed at helping students integrate these technologies and use them ethically. Tan et al. (2022) explored immersive technology’s role in social and emotional learning. Findings suggest that virtual environments enhance perspective-taking and empath in addressing ethical dilemmas compared to traditional methods. Bakhmat et al. (2022) argue that moral and moral standards play a crucial role in shaping the digital competencies of teachers. These ethical constants help maintain a balance between technological advancements and the human dimension.

Exploring access and inequality of use, this ethical analysis is not limited to the aforementioned consideration, but also extends to the related social and economic dimensions. Equality, social justice and economic sustainability are inextricably linked to ethical technological development. Partarakis and Zabulis (2024) point out that it is important to enable these technologies towards inclusion in educational environment.

Excessive use of immersive technologies can contribute to addiction and impact mental health. Society must address how to balance the benefits of these technologies with the health and well-being of individuals. In this line, ethical dilemma arises from psychological effects associated with immersion in virtual environments (Caballero Trenado, 2023; Lorente, 2023).

In this situation, the protection of privacy and data protection are key concerns that must be given great attention when designing and implementing technologies. This ensures the protection of individual rights and guarantees transparent and secure practices in the management of personal data (Jamaludin et al., 2020; Mohammed, et al., 2020; López Escarcena, 2021; Cruz Ángeles, 2023). This focus on the protection of privacy is linked to the critical examination of artificial intelligence and automated decision-making. It is argued that addressing algorithmic bias and promoting accountability are essential to ensure fairness and transparency (Nevanpera et al., 2021).

In line with these principles, ethics in the use of technology emphasizes the importance of empowering users and respecting their autonomy. To this end, it is essential to build user-machine interfaces at the design stage that not only enable informed decisions but also give people substantial control over their interaction with the technology. In addition, the integrity of technological systems and the safety of users require ethical practices, including the responsible disclosure of vulnerabilities and the proactive adoption of measures to ensure the security of systems. Southgate et al. (2019) emphasize that in the virtual reality intervention teachers-researchers where committed to students’ safety. Kremer et al. (2023) advocate for the use of virtual reality in educational training to ensure the safety of the patients preventing contagion.

Although safety and security are not usually perceived directly as ethical issues, an ethical consideration arises from the perspective of Nevanpera et al. (2021) when examined in the context of human rights. In this scenario, it is argued that an ethical discussion must take place, especially when the purpose of these measures is to protect people from social, emotional and physical challenges. In other words, when security becomes a means to protect people’s fundamental rights, ethical reflection is warranted to ensure that these protective measures are in line with broader ethical principles.

In this sense, Rosetti and Angeluci, 2021 emphasise the importance of incorporating ethical principles from the earliest stages of design. They argue that minimal governance with normative ethical regulations is essential to ensure that fundamental principles such as safety, transparency, human dignity, non-discrimination, freedom of choice, privacy protection and accountability are included in the design itself. This approach suggests that ethics should not be an afterthought, but an integral part of the design of immersive technology. Suh and Prophet (2018) propose to improve user experiences with immersive technology, systems designers should prioritize minimizing the negative effects such as motion sickness, cognitive overload, physical discomfort, and distraction.

Furthermore, it is assumed that ethics in technology also encompasses corporate responsibility. Technology companies, it is argued, should act with integrity and transparency and make a positive contribution to society, which includes ethical practises in advertising, labour relations and corporate decisions (Orozco Martinez, 2021).

Regarding misinformation, Cho et al. (2023) utilize immersive technologies escape rooms to train and equip individuals with critical resources against misinformation. During the VR intervention, Brown et al. (2023) maintained apolitical and generalized narrative examples while preserving cultural relevance as a mitigation measure. However, they caution that, firstly, the unique threat of spreading misinformation in virtual reality is real and relevant. Secondly, they recommend that the decision to test the effectiveness of misinformation in VR could easily cross the boundaries of established ethical practices. Regarding manipulation, Hein et al. (2021) propose that the portrayal of other individuals and self-presentation can be manipulated in immersive technologies. Research in behavioral psychology presents promising results in this context, particularly applicable in the field of intercultural competence.

Concerning cultural integration, Bekele and Champion (2019) express a positive perception of an intervention involving AR, VR and MxR for dissemination of cultural knowledge in Virtual Heritage. From the interaction standpoint, viable approaches were identified in collaborative and multimodal interaction methods. Hein et al. (2021) found that a substantial number of studies were noted for comparing traditional teaching methods with immersive technologies’ interventions labelled for foreign language learning. The criteria predominantly examined were cognitive learning achievements, such as vocabulary or speaking, affective variables, including motivation, satisfaction, or speaking anxiety and discomfort. Several advantages of immersive technology in foreign language teaching were employed and demonstrated in the studies identified, including heightened attention, motivation, and enjoyment. These authors have identified significant potential and a current research gap in the field of intercultural and transcultural language learning.

Below is a summary Table 1 with all the seven topics, researchers and approaches expressed in this section with a direct or indirect relationship to the educational context where it converges along with other disciplines.

In the context of digital transformation, the introduction of immersive technologies, especially with the advent of the metaverse, represents both a critical challenge and an opportunity to shape a technological environment that reflects ethical values and ensures fairness.

Based on the definitions of Cruz Ángeles, 2023, there are differences between Metaverse and metaverse (upper and lower case). This distinction is given for analysis in academic and legal fields, thus the author defines Metaverse (with the first capital letter), as the global conception of a three-dimensional and collective online digital space, that combines aspects of the physical and virtual worlds, while metaverse (with lower case) is used to describe individual digital worlds or platforms that exist within the broader framework of the Metaverse and which, although interconnected, retain their own specificities and distinguishing features, from virtual reality games to specific social networks. In this dissertation, to align the discourse coherently with the addressed theme, we will broadly focus on immersive Metaverse technology in general.

Metaverse’s role in education includes creating immersive learning environments, allowing language learning (Hwang, 2021), fostering real-time collaboration, providing interactive educational experiences, enabling remote and global training (AlSaleem, 2023), and developing advanced digital skills. This technology enhances understanding, motivation and enjoyment (Talan and Kalinkara, 2022), encourages global access, and prepares students for navigating virtual environments in the digital age. Li and Yu (2023) have discovered that blended language learning in the Metaverse entails key factors such as learner engagement, learning outcomes, and digital literacy.

Al-Adwan and Al-Debei (2023) concluded that, among higher education students (Generation Z), the following variables: performance expectation, effort, favorable conditions, hedonic motivation, value for money, personal innovation in the field of technologies were significant in predisposing to adopt Metaverse technology, except for the factor of social influence.

However, Onu et al. (2023) maintain that some learners may be hesitant to adopt Metaverse technology and may not be ready for engage at the beginning of the learning process. Talan and Kalınkara, 2022 gathered the students’ perception that Metaverse complicates learning, causes distraction, disconnects students from real-life experiences, and disrupts classroom discipline.

From an expert perspective, various authors explore several fundamental elements that are considered essential for creating an ethical and enriching Metaverse for human existence: ethical design, protections of identities, access and equity and regulation.

The concept of ethical design proves to be a fundamental principle in the construction of the Metaverse. The integration of ethical considerations in the early stages of technology development is becoming the order of the day. This means that the architecture and functions of the Metaverse are guided by sound ethical principles, mitigating risks such as algorithmic bias and promoting privacy and inclusion (Nevanpera et al., 2021; Rosetti and Angeluci, 2021; Cruz Ángeles, 2023).

The protection of personal data and the integrity of individuals in the Metaverse is becoming a priority. The protection of identities includes not only measures to prevent the theft of virtual identities, but also ensuring confidentiality in the handling of sensitive data and thus establishing ethical protocols for the management of digital identities (Jamaludin et al., 2020; Cruz Ángeles, 2023).

The principle of equity emerges as an essential component to ensure that the Metaverse is accessible and beneficial in an equitable manner. This includes removing barriers that may exclude certain groups, such as economic inequalities or limited technological access, expensiveness, time-consuming (AlSaleem, 2023), as well as race and psychomotor and cognitive deficits. Therefore, this becomes a central task. An equitable approach strives for inclusion and diversity in participation in the Metaverse, (Zallio and Clarkson, 2022; Meenaakshisundaram, 2023).

Ethical regulation is an essential element in establishing a legal framework to oversee and govern the development and operation of the Metaverse. This regulatory framework focuses on preventing abuse, protecting the rights of individuals and ensuring that practices in the Metaverse comply with previously established ethical standards (Rosetti and Angeluci, 2021; UNESCO, 2021). To compile the information, all these aspects exposed are presented in this summary Table 2.

The research method was a mini literature review, also known as a brief literature review or narrative review, which is a type of academic literature analysis that focuses on a concise and selective review of existing studies and publications on a particular topic. It differs from a more comprehensive systematic review in that it is more concise and focuses on specific aspects of the topic.

Within this method, the snowball documentary approach was used. This iterative approach enables the discovery of new relevant sources and ensures a more complete coverage of the topic, thus contributing to the robustness and completeness of the review. The key to the snowball technique (Hepplestone et al., 2011) is not limiting oneself to the initial sources; rather, actively seeking to build a network of references that lead to new relevant research. This approach allows for a deeper and more comprehensive exploration of the topic, combining analysis and synthesis (Sánchez-Gordón and Luján-Mora, 2018), as each newly identified source may provide additional perspective or approaches that might have been overlooked initially.

We started by searching for keywords in WOS related to the topic: ethics, educational context, and immersive technologies or synonyms. Once finding the most relevant sources identifying impactful articles peer review from the last 5 years on each immersive technology, we applied the snowball technique. We expand the search of the topic through the bibliographic references of the selected studies. We expanded the final documentary corpus using Google Scholar to find studies citing the identified peer review articles and review their references.

Thus, in line with Pellas et al. (2021) the inclusive criteria comprised peer review articles, preferably in English, published between 2018 and 2023, addressing ethical concerns related immersive technologies, and considering both abstract and full-texts. The specific criteria encompassed peer review articles providing recommendations or discussion on ethical issues regarding immersive technologies in an educational context, focusing on full-text content. Exclusion criteria involving books, book chapters, conference materials, reports, etc.,; articles lacking recommendations or discussion on the topic; and research or systematic articles with small sample size or inadequately structured research method.

Subsequently, through the critical reading of the references found, the ethical aspects of the use of immersive technologies in education expressed by the different authors in their articles, as well as the possible solutions they propose for it, are presented in a table.

The following results have been obtained regarding ethical aspects. The results will be divided into two parts, focusing on general findings and potential ethical solutions.

This comprehensive review of ethics in the use of immersive technologies in education has highlighted the complexity and multidimensionality of this emerging topic by looking at different perspectives, from policy frameworks to specific proposals for ethical codes and the integration of values in educational programmes.

This study thoroughly examines the ethical implications of integrating immersive technologies into education, demanding a comprehensive perspective that spans academic multidisciplinary viewpoints. The recommended holistic approach, combining legal frameworks, ethical codes, and education programs centered on core values, is highlighted as essential for navigating the complex ethical landscape. As immersive technologies become integral to education, ongoing research and standardization efforts underscore the dynamic nature of the ethical dimension. Researchers’ perspectives vary, with some emphasizing concerns about negative ethical education in response to emerging challenges. Post-implementation, ethical challenges and norms arise, contributing to the continuous expansion of the topic. An in-depth analysis reveals nuanced differences and commonalities between immersive technologies and the Metaverse, emphasizing multifaceted considerations. Legal aspects receive comprehensive coverage in AR, VR, and MxR technologies, while the Metaverse focuses primarily on identity protection and regulatory discussions. Notably, in education, immersive technologies exhibit more advanced ethical concerns, particularly in the responsible use of educational agents, addressing addiction, mental health, misinformation, manipulation, and promoting cultural integration. This succinct exploration underscores the richness and depth of ethical considerations within immersive technologies, setting them apart from the Metaverse.

Therefore, a broad horizon is outlined that aims to set out the ethical challenges associated with digital immersion in education and the approach proposed by several researchers. In this line, Partarakis and Zabulis (2024) recommend that addressing these challenges requires a collaborative and forward-looking approach, along a dedication to ethical practices, inclusive design, promoting technological literacy through education, and establishing frameworks that balance innovation with responsibility.

It is imperative that legal frameworks are effectively implemented to ensure the protection of rights and equity in the use of these technologies. Furthermore, specific ethical codes need to be created for the Metaverse, adding a crucial layer of detail and guidance to ensure ethical practises in virtual interaction and providing clear guidelines for users and developers in this emerging environment.

The philosophical perspective presented by Munn and Weijers (2023) adds an additional layer to the discussion and shifts the focus to governance and power in the development of virtual platforms. This broader approach encourages reflection on how development decisions affect the user experience and emphasizes the importance of avoiding the consolidation of power in the hands of corporations.

Future research is suggested to address the limitations identified, such as the lack of detailed surveys with real users. A better understanding of user experiences and ethical concerns will provide a more solid foundation for the development of effective ethical practices and policies in the field of immersive technologies.

It also emphasizes the importance of continuing to monitor the implementation of the European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles and to assess its impact on shaping an ethical digital environment. This ongoing evaluation process will allow ethical policies and practices to be adapted and improved as the technological landscape evolves. Similarly, it would be interesting to know the impact of the implementation of the ethical framework and regulations and what the long-term implications are in terms of changes in educational dynamics.

Ultimately, ethics in the use of immersive technologies in education is a dynamic area that requires adaptability and constant reflection. Close collaboration between researchers, policymakers and education professionals will be key to ensuring an ethical and equitable virtual environment for future generations. Promoting ethics in digital immersion is not only a shared responsibility, but also a necessity to ensure a sustainable and ethical educational future.