Immersive technology is a spectrum of technologies, mainly including AR, VR, and MR. These digital technologies significantly blend and blur the levels of interactivity and perception between the physical and digital domains for the users (Paul, 2023). The utilization of these technologies in the contextual environment of museum exhibitions is gaining popularity (He et al., 2018; Han et al., 2019; Ferdani et al., 2020; Trunfio et al., 2022b). The crucial task to better understand and scrutinize the ongoing trends and discourse in this area led us to adopt the broader framework of the Reality-Virtuality Continuum, as shown in Figure 1, introduced by Milgram and Kishino (1994). This continuum provides an essential classification, ranging from pure physical reality at one end to a complete VR at the other.

AR, which uses the minimal digital overlay to enhance physical reality, finds its place closer to the “real” end of the spectrum. In contrast, VR completely immerses the users in a digital environment and lies on the “virtual” extreme. MR, an eclectic blend of real and virtual elements, lies somewhere in the middle, depending on the degree of virtual content incorporated into the real environment. Partitioning the existing literature along the Reality-Virtuality Continuum, we delve deeper to chalk the present landscape’s main trajectories and realize the potential transformation immersive technology can bring forth in museum exhibitions.

The utilization of immersive technology in museum exhibitions has evolved, progressing from initial novelty applications to more meaningful and contextually rich experiences. Early applications of immersive technology in museums focused on the novelty aspect, offering standalone VR experiences or integrating AR markers into exhibits (Pence, 2010; Geroimenko, 2012; Craig, 2013). However, as the field has advanced, there has been a noticeable shift towards creating more immersive and interactive experiences that enhance visitor engagement and facilitate a deeper understanding of cultural heritage (Hammady et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2023).

Rapid advancements in immersive technologies such as AR and VR, coupled with tangible hardware updates and innovative software features, have paved the way for significant transformations within the domain of museum exhibitions. Modern solutions include more advanced controllers and haptic devices, improved AR kits and cameras, and sophisticated features such as eye-tracking. These updates have further blurred the lines between the physical and digital realities, cultivating highly immersive and interactive experiences (Chang et al., 2023).

Apart from tangible improvements, recent years have also witnessed a surge in the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within the domain. More specifically, Virtual Agents and ChatGPT technologies have revolutionized user interaction within immersive environments. For example, the “Exhibot” intelligent audio guide system, field-tested with the statue of a prominent politician in Heraklion, Greece, combines Audio AR and AI chatbot technologies to facilitate natural interactions between visitors and exhibits, creating an immersive learning experience. IoT devices are also utilized, ensuring contextualized information, and providing an enriched and engaging user visit (Tsepapadakis and Gavalas, 2023). Similarly, the emergence of Digital Twins, which allow precise virtual representations of physical artifacts, has also marked a transformative shift in the museum landscape. This virtual replication enables detailed interaction with delicate or inaccessible heritage pieces and propels the museum sector into a new digital transformation era (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Alongside, the developments in rendering technologies and computer graphics have enhanced the visual realism of immersive experiences, making the application of VR and AR incredibly immersive and impactful. This improvement has significantly influenced visitors’ overall museum encounters (Eswaran and Bahubalendruni, 2023). Furthermore, strategically using visitor data and personalization algorithms have enabled museums to personalize the visitor experience. An illustrative case is The National Museum of Natural History, which harnesses visitor data to tailor AR tour experiences. This use of data significantly boosts visitor engagement and satisfaction within the museum environment (Dahroug et al., 2021; Leung, 2022).

One significant advancement in the utilization of immersive technology in museum exhibitions is the creation of virtual museums. These digital replicas of physical museum spaces allow visitors to remotely explore and interact with exhibits, expanding access to cultural heritage beyond physical boundaries. Another area of development is the enhancement of storytelling experiences in virtual heritage spaces, where narrative elements are combined with virtual environments to create immersive and interactive engagements with historical events and cultural narratives (Sylaiou and Dafiotis, 2020; Leow & Ch’ng, 2021; Bozzelli et al., 2019). For example, the Viking VR exhibit recreates a 9th-century Viking encampment, providing an engaging and informative experience (Schofield et al., 2018a).

Immersive technology also has a significant impact on educational value in museum exhibitions. Initiatives such as the Marine Learning project integrate AR and digital game-based learning to increase engagement and knowledge acquisition, particularly benefiting students with lower academic achievement (Lu and Liu, 2015). Additionally, immersive technology enhances accessibility in museums. For instance, a literary museum and city tour centered on Italo Svevo has implemented an AR experience to improve accessibility for adult and elderly visitors (Fenu and Pittarello, 2018). Immersive technology also engages visitors through multi-sensory experiences. The Tate Sensorium project at Tate Britain incorporated sounds, taste, touch, and smell through VR to create an immersive and memorable museum experience that engages all the senses (Pursey and Lomas, 2018). Furthermore, immersive technology has been utilized to preserve temporary exhibits during the COVID-19 pandemic. Projects such as the FabricVR initiative aimed to digitize the ancient fabric of the Wieng Yong House Museum, providing visitors with an immersive virtual museum experience (Arayaphan et al., 2022).

Overall, immersive technology development in museum exhibitions has transitioned from simple novelty applications to more meaningful and contextually rich experiences. These innovative applications allow museums to bridge the gap between visitors and the exhibited content, fostering deeper connections and encouraging active participation. The focus has shifted towards enhancing storytelling, promoting visitor engagement, facilitating educational opportunities, improving accessibility, and preserving temporary exhibits. Further, the role of visitor data in personalizing immersive experiences is also examined, alluding to the potential future direction of immersive technologies in museum settings, centered around creating tailored visitor experiences. These advancements have revolutionized the traditional museum experience, enabling visitors to explore and interact with cultural heritage in unprecedented and immersive ways.

The integration of immersive technology in museum exhibitions profoundly impacts user experience, offering visitors unique and engaging encounters with cultural artifacts and historical contexts. Immersive technologies create sensory-rich and interactive experiences that evoke a strong sense of presence, transporting visitors to different times and places and fostering emotional connections with the content (Dogan and KAN, 2020; Burlingame, 2022). The interactive nature of immersive technology promotes active participation, deepens understanding, and stimulates visitor curiosity and exploration (Hawkey, 2004; Rogage et al., 2021). Moreover, by leveraging digital interfaces, immersive technology has the potential to attract and engage a broader audience, including younger generations, thereby fostering inclusivity, and expanding the reach of cultural heritage institutions (Doukianou et al., 2020).

Furthermore, integrating immersive technology in museum exhibitions has shown promising results in enhancing learning and interpretation. Studies have demonstrated that immersive experiences improve information retention, facilitate more profound understanding, and stimulate critical thinking skills (Sanabria and Arámburo-Lizárraga, 2017). By providing interactive and multimodal experiences, immersive technology supports various learning styles and encourages active knowledge construction among visitors (Mortara et al., 2014). Museums can leverage immersive technology to present complex information in accessible and engaging ways, making cultural heritage more inclusive and relevant to diverse audiences (Bekele and Champion, 2019; Khan et al., 2021).

Moreover, implementing immersive technology in museum exhibitions presents various technical challenges that can affect user experience. VR sickness, which refers to discomfort or nausea experienced by users, is a significant concern (Kim et al., 2018; Marques and Costello, 2018; Saredakis et al., 2020). Efforts are being made to improve ergonomics and technology to address this issue. The quality and reliability of AR kits used in exhibitions also pose challenges, as precise tracking technology is crucial for accurately auguring digital content (Van Krevelen and Poelman, 2010; Kim et al., 2021). Designing inclusive immersive experiences for visitors with disabilities is another challenge, requiring consideration of auditory and visual impairments, mobility limitations, and cognitive differences (Lisney et al., 2013; Shehade and Stylianou-Lambert, 2020). Additionally, evaluating and measuring the impact of immersive experiences on visitor engagement and learning necessitates the development of rigorous methodologies and frameworks (Konstantakis and Caridakis, 2020). Technical constraints, such as cost and maintenance, can also be barriers for museums with limited resources (Machidon et al., 2018).

In summary, incorporating immersive technology in museum exhibitions introduces technical challenges that must be addressed to ensure an immersive and engaging user experience. Concerns such as VR sickness, the quality of AR kits, accessibility considerations, and the development of evaluation methodologies require further attention and investigation. By effectively addressing these technical limitations, museums can fully leverage the potential of immersive technology to create immersive, educational, and inclusive experiences for their visitors. In the following sections of this paper, we will present a comprehensive bibliometric analysis that explores the utilization of immersive technology in museum exhibitions. This analysis aims to shed light on influential publications, notable authors, and emerging trends in the field. By gaining a deeper understanding of the existing literature and the impact of immersive technology on user experience, we can identify critical areas for further research and development.

In the field of library and information science, bibliometrics stands as a valuable quantitative research methodology. This approach leverages statistical and quantitative analyses to illuminate the publication patterns within a specific discipline or body of literature (Verma and Garg, 2023). Bibliometrics’ strength rests in its capacity to map out the progression of research disciplines over time. This includes unveiling relationships between authors, academic institutions, and countries and pinpointing the most impactful studies. Consequently, it is a reliable tool for forecasting emerging research trends (Sharma et al., 2023). For the purposes of our study, we will employ two separate bibliometric analyses: co-citation analysis and co-word analysis.

Co-citation analysis denotes the concurrent citation of two separate scholarly articles by another distinct publication (Shiau et al., 2023). Implementing this technique in the scope of our investigation provides us with a tool to delineate the academic terrain of our subject matter. More specifically, it uncovers those works on immersive technology in the setting of museum exhibitions that often attract combined citations. This analysis has the potential to reveal the most influential works and demonstrate how they have contributed to the development of the field (Bronk et al., 2023).

Table 1 describes the procedure and parameters used for the literature search and screening. It alludes to a thorough analysis of every database included in the Web of Science (WOS), as indicated in the “WOS Database” section. According to Yan and Zhiping (2023), the WOS databases are an ideal selection for bibliometric research because of their high quality and extensive content. These databases are widely used and trusted repositories for scholarly publication and citation data, providing extensive exposure to internationally recognized research (Birkle et al., 2020; Martín-Martín et al., 2021). The “Time Period” specifies that all publications from the databases’ inception to 7 June 2023, were taken into account. According to the “Search Field” section, the search was limited to the topic field, which includes the title, abstract, and keywords of a publication. The “Search Keywords” column indicates that the study’s main emphasis was on publications that included the keywords [(“Immersive technology” or “virtual reality” or “VR” or “augmented reality” or “AR” or “mixed reality” or “MR” or “extended reality” or “XR” or “haptic feedback” or “immersive experiences” or “immersive media” or “immersive environments”) and (“museum exhibition*” or “museum*” or “museum display*” or “exhibition space*” or “exhibition*" or “cultural institution*” or “art galler*” or “science center*” or “heritage site*”) and (“user” or “user experience” or “user satisfaction” or “user engagement” or “user perception” or “visitor experience” or “visitor engagement” or “audience engagement” or “human-computer interaction” or “user-centered design” or “user feedback”)]. The column “Citation Topics Meso” shows that the study included, without exception, all Meso-level topics associated with these keywords. “Document Type” implies that the search included all types of documents, whereas “Languages” indicates that only articles written in English were considered. This screening procedure yielded 722 articles suitable for further bibliometric analysis. The VOSviewer bibliometric software, version 1.6.18, was used for data analysis.

The Web of Science database search yielded 5,305 citations for the selected articles (N = 722), 4,690 of which were without self-citations. The average number of citations per article was 7.35, with an H-index of 29. This compilation of 722 articles demonstrates a growing interest in immersive technology literature, particularly emphasizing user experience in museum exhibitions. Although such research began in 1994, significant contributions did not appear until 2013. Since then, the number of relevant publications has increased in a fluctuating trend. Figure 2 depicts the number of published articles and their corresponding citations from 1994 to 2023.

The co-citation analysis was carried out with a citation threshold of 52, yielding a total of 10 cited references. Figure 3 depicts the network analysis based on these sources. Table 2 lists the top ten co-cited references with the highest total link strength. Bekele et al. (2018) were cited 56 times, Jung et al. (2015) were cited 25 times, and tom Dieck and Jung (2018a) were cited 19 times.

The co-citation analysis revealed three distinct clusters, each with its own theme. These clusters represent collections of related and thematically comparable publications. Similar publications are grouped into the same cluster, which is represented by nodes of the same color. The following are the descriptions and labels for each cluster:

Cluster 1 (Red) has 21 publications with the title “AR for educational enhancement”. The role of AR as an educational and engagement tool in cultural heritage contexts was the focus of this cluster. From the pioneering work of Azuma et al. (2001), who provided comprehensive surveys on AR, to more recent explorations by Bekele et al. (2018); Billinghurst et al. (2015), there has been a significant effort made to understand AR’s potential in diverse cultural heritage environments. Applications range from painting appreciation (Chang et al., 2014) to immersive museum guides (Damala et al., 2008; Miyashita et al., 2008). The ability of augmented reality to bridge the gap between the digital and physical worlds, thereby improving visitor experiences and educational opportunities, is the point of convergence of these publications. Milgram et al. (1995) developed a taxonomy for this continuum, which has since influenced AR applications in these environments. Notably, several works, including those by Sylaiou et al. (2010), have investigated how AR can provide a presence-centered approach to improving usability and engagement in virtual museums.

Table 3 summarizes the co-citation analysis performed on immersive technology in museum exhibitions, focusing on user experience. Cluster labels, the number of publications, and representative publications are all included in Table 3.

The co-citation analysis and an evaluation utilizing the Reality-Virtuality Continuum offer a comprehensive understanding of the immersive technology literature. The articles were evaluated based on their focus—AR, VR, or a blend of both (MR). The continuum identified the AR emphasis in the first cluster, primarily driven by the works of Azuma (1997); Bekele et al. (2018). The second cluster also leaned towards AR, investigating human factors influencing AR adoption. The third cluster predominantly focused on VR, observing the development of entirely virtual, game-driven heritage experiences, exemplifying works like those by Anderson et al. (2010); Mortara et al. (2014). Thus, integrating the Reality-Virtuality Continuum into our examination yields more profound insights into trends within the immersive technology landscape in museum exhibitions.

A minimum of 10 occurrences for each of the 45 identified keywords were found. The co-word analysis revealed that the most frequently used keyword was “augmented reality,” with 232 occurrences, followed by “virtual reality” (190 occurrences) and “cultural heritage” (83 occurrences). Table 4 displays the top 15 co-occurring keywords. The network structure of keyword co-occurrences is depicted in Figure 4, which consists of five distinct yet seemingly interconnected clusters. Each cluster’s following characteristics are examined and discussed:

Table 5 summarizes the user experience of immersive technology in museum exhibitions using co-word analysis. It consists of cluster labels, the number of keywords, and representative keywords.

The findings of this bibliometric analysis, which delves into the literature on immersive technology within museum exhibitions, specifically addressing user experience, carry several theoretical implications. These implications contribute to existing academic research and provide a framework for future investigations.

Expanding the Understanding of User Experience: By exploring how immersive technology is applied in museum exhibitions, this study underscores the significance of user experience as a primary driving factor in technological advancements. “Cluster 2: Human factors, acceptance, and visitor experiences” conveys the necessity for further expounding upon the human elements related to adopting these technologies. Understanding and addressing technological acceptance and user attitudes would be beneficial to successfully implementing these technologies and allow value co-citation within visitor experiences. In addition to examining user satisfaction and engagement, the analysis also sheds light on other crucial aspects of user experience, such as perception and VR interaction design (Barbieri et al., 2018). This expanded understanding enriches the theoretical foundations of user experience in immersive technology and provides insights into how museums can design and enhance visitor experiences. Mortara et al. (2014) research highlights how these technologies offer new opportunities for museums to create interactive, educational, and engaging experiences for their visitors.

Promoting Cross-disciplinary Collaboration: this research’s findings underline the intersectionality of varied fields within the thematic clusters. This suggests that the application of immersive technology in museum exhibitions isn’t an isolated task within a singular domain, but rather a collaborative undertaking that integrates insights from diverse disciplines. For instance, the intervention of management principles and design concepts from fields like business studies and design is highlighted in “Cluster 1: VR and AR-enhanced heritage tourism.” Similarly, “Cluster 3: Interactive digital art education in immersive environments” underscores the need to incorporate principles from Computer Science, specifically human-computer interaction and advanced computational techniques, indicating a combined effort between Computer Science and Art Education scholars. This interdisciplinary integration is echoed in previous research (Schofield et al., 2018b; Bec et al., 2019; Dwivedi et al., 2022) and stresses the value of cross-disciplinary collaborations in developing and deploying immersive technology in museum settings for more impactful visitor experiences. Consequently, museums and relevant entities are urged to embrace and facilitate such collaborations actively.

Emergent User-centric Design Approaches: The analysis underlines an increasing focus on user-centric design incorporating immersive technologies in museums and exhibitions. Co-citation Analysis highlighted three main clusters: “AR for educational enhancement,” focusing on improved visitor experiences; “human factors, acceptance, and visitor experiences,” emphasizing the importance of users’ acceptance and experiences of innovative technology; and “serious game-driven and interactive 3D heritage experiences,” accentuating the interactive and engaging nature of VR-based experiences. Similarly, co-word analysis emphasized themes of enhanced heritage tourism and virtual museum experiences facilitated by VR and AR technology. The thematic clusters emphasize developing and employing immersive technologies in museum contexts designed to emphasize user needs. The results highlight the urgent need for design strategies in museums and exhibition settings considering specific user necessities and expectations. This guides designers in creating immersive technology experiences that enhance user engagement, promoting further understanding and appreciation of cultural artifacts.

Evaluating User Experience Approaches: The paper delves into various methodologies for evaluating visitor experiences in immersive museum environments, such as usability testing, interviews, surveys, and observations. These methods assess key elements like ease of use, enjoyment, and perceived learning derived from AR/VR projects. For instance, usability testing involves observing and recording how visitors interact with VR/AR installations, providing insights into navigational challenges, perceptual issues, or technical problems that may hinder the visitor’s experience. Interviews and surveys are particularly useful for gauging visitor reactions post-experience, eliciting their feelings, perceptions, learning, and the impact of the immersive experience on their overall visit. Observational methods allow for real-time data collection on how visitors engage with the technology and navigate the exhibition, offering rich qualitative insights into visitor behavior, interaction, and engagement. These methods provide a comprehensive understanding of the visitor’s experience within the immersive environment. Interspersed throughout the paper, we provide real-world examples of successful AR/VR projects in museums that have effectively leveraged these evaluation methods to refine their visitor experiences to be more engaging, accessible, and educational, demonstrating the practical application of these evaluation strategies in the field.

As presented in this study, the practical implications of immersive technology for museum exhibitions could offer potentially useful insights for cultural institutions and museum management. These implications span various dimensions, such as content development, enhancing visitor engagement, expanding accessibility, and fostering educational opportunities, providing actual examples and user experience evaluation methods to ensure a clearer understanding of the field, its practical application, and prospective direction.

Content Development: AR, VR, and MR technologies offer a new realm of possibilities for content development in museum exhibitions. A prime example can be seen in the British Museum’s VR Bronze Age exhibit, which used Samsung Gear VR headsets to provide viewers with a 3D interactive view of domestic life in Bronze Age Britain (Puig et al., 2020). Similar strategic usage of immersive technologies empowers museums to revitalize traditional exhibition spaces, promote visitor engagement, and diversify storytelling methods (Azuma, 2015; Dal Falco and Vassos, 2017). By utilizing AR, VR, and MR, narratives buried within cultural heritage can be dynamically and interactively brought to life.

Enhancing Visitor Engagement: The Smithsonian Institution’s adoption of VR for the exhibition, “No Spectators: The Art of Burning Man,” in 2017, demonstrates the potential of this immersive technology within museum settings (Sylaiou et al., 2018). This practical application allowed visitors to explore the gallery and engage with exhibits virtually, providing deeper content immersion and enriched experiences (Traboulsi et al., 2018; Vaz et al., 2018). Improved interface usability and meaningful content integration are crucial to encouraging positive visitor engagement with VR technologies, ultimately enriching the museum experience. Within the bibliometric analysis, the significance of human-computer interaction principles, user-centric design, and visitor feedback incorporation emerged as key enhancers of visitor experiences in museums deploying immersive technology. Our co-citation and co-word analysis emphasized the criticality of ease of use, intuitive interfaces, and seamless navigation within VR/AR platforms (Azuma, 2015; Billinghurst et al., 2015). These implications suggest the potential for personalizing VR/AR experiences based on visitor feedback, currently an underexplored area in the literature. For instance, museums could incorporate adaptive algorithms or artificial intelligence techniques for personalization, thereby tailoring the visitor journey to individual preferences. Such enhancements could optimize visitor satisfaction and pave the way for future research into the effective personalization of immersive technologies within museum contexts.

Expanding Accessibility: Louvre, the world’s most visited museum, paired up with HTC Vive Arts to create a VR tour of the museum, where users can virtually navigate and interact with the exhibits (McGivern, 2019). By offering such virtual tours and exhibits, museums can transcend geographic limitations, making their collections accessible to a global audience. Additionally, customizable digital interfaces can cater to individuals with varied sensory preferences or mobility limitations, promoting inclusive practices. Specific age demographics, such as children and seniors, can also benefit from tailored immersive experiences. Therefore, the proliferation of VR, AR, and MR technologies can democratize and widen access to culture and heritage.

Fostering Educational Opportunities: The Smithsonian Institution, for instance, has implemented an AR app, “Skin and Bones,” which brings 13 different fossils and skeletons on display at the museum to life (Borda and Bowen, 2017). The tablet-based application overlays digital graphics onto the actual exhibits, offering the viewers a deeper understanding of the creatures that once roamed Earth. Museums adopting AR overlays can offer added information or reveal hidden details of the artifacts on display, thereby enhancing on-site learning experiences (Kennedy et al., 2021). Likewise, developing interactive VR games can stimulate public curiosity towards culture, history, and art, aligning with various learning preferences and attracting younger generations (Kim and Lee, 2022). Drawing upon the insights from these exemplars, this study proposes that integrating immersive technologies into pedagogical strategies within museum contexts can significantly augment learning outcomes and visitor engagement. Nevertheless, it necessitates substantial empirical exploration to fully grasp the scope and advantages of AR and VR in museum education. Factors such as visitor age groups, diverse learning styles, and the nature of the exhibit content require careful consideration in tailoring these technologies for optimal pedagogical impact. Despite the promising potential of immersive technologies in enhancing visitor experiences, as elucidated in Section 5 of this study, future research initiatives should strive to delve deeper into understanding how tailored applications of these technologies across varying visitor demographics shape educational outcomes in the museum context.

In summary, this study suggests that immersive technology can significantly reshape the landscape of museum exhibitions, transforming them into more engaging, accessible, and educational experiences for visitors. Consequently, museum practitioners and administrators are encouraged to consider integrating such technology into their strategic development and operations. These practical implications emphasize the importance of creating intricate ties between museums and visitors. By embracing immersive technology, museums can thrive in the digital age, enriching visitors’ experiences, expanding access to cultural heritage, and fostering impactful educational opportunities.