Infestations caused by lice (Bovicola spp.) and flies that induce myiasis (such as Wohlfahrtia magnifica) play a significant role in dermatological issues, pruritus, and stress. Lice infestations may result in restlessness, severe cases can lead to anemia, and they can also damage hair fibers, thereby diminishing the quality of wool (61). Myiasis, which refers to the invasion of living tissue by fly larvae, can result in painful lesions, secondary infections, and, if not treated, can be fatal (49). Although often neglected, these parasites exacerbate welfare issues and lead to production losses, especially in animals that are already weakened by co-infections or inadequate nutrition (62, 63).

The most notable zoonotic cestode is Echinococcus granulosus, responsible for Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) or hydatid disease. Camels act as intermediate hosts, predominantly containing hydatid cysts within their lungs and liver. Surveys conducted in slaughterhouses within endemic areas, such as the Middle East and North Africa, indicate infection rates in camels that range from 5% to over 20% (67, 68). Although camels often remain asymptomatic, significant cyst loads can result in organ condemnation, leading to direct economic repercussions for the meat industry. The more substantial impact, however, pertains to human health. Humans contract the infection by inadvertently ingesting eggs excreted in the feces of infected definitive hosts, usually dogs that have consumed infected camel offal. CE is classified as a neglected tropical disease that inflicts considerable morbidity and mortality within pastoral communities, with treatment being both complex and expensive (69, 70).

Other cestodes, such as Moniezia spp., are prevalent yet non-zoonotic, leading to diarrhea, especially in young camels, which results in diminished growth rates and productivity (71). Although trematode infections in camels are reported less frequently, they include species that possess both direct and indirect zoonotic potential. The liver flukes Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica have been identified in camels. The prevalence of these infections varies but can be considerable in regions with appropriate wetland habitats for the intermediate snail host. Such infections lead to liver condemnation, fibrosis, and decreased weight gain. This represents a significant zoonosis, as humans can contract the infection through the ingestion of contaminated aquatic plants, such as watercress (72, 73). Schistosoma spp. is capable of infecting camels, resulting in granulomatous lesions in the liver and intestines. Camels may act as reservoir hosts for species like S. japonicum, which complicates control measures in endemic regions. Human schistosomiasis is a debilitating condition acquired through exposure to cercariae-infested freshwater (74).

In addition to the primary gastrointestinal nematodes, certain species can lead to zoonotic infections. Trichuris (whipworm) is generally host-specific; however, close interaction with infected animals presents a 6 impact. The cumulative consequences of polyparasitism lead to a cycle of persistent suffering, economic detriment, and increased susceptibility, thereby jeopardizing the sustainability of livelihoods reliant on camels. An integrated One Health strategy that combines sophisticated diagnostics, established welfare evaluation methods, and customized control measures is critically needed to address these complex issues (75, 76).

Chronic parasitism causes considerable pain, distress, and physical debilitation. Infestations by mange mites (Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameli) result in severe itching, which can lead to skin damage, lesions, and secondary bacterial infections. Camels suffering from these conditions often display signs of restlessness and social withdrawal, reflecting significant physical and psychological distress (3). Likewise, hemoparasites like Trypanosoma evansi cause ongoing anemia, fever, and swelling, which contribute to lethargy and overall weakness (22). The chronic nature of these ailments, frequently exacerbated by delayed interventions in isolated pastoralist communities, results in prolonged periods of aversion and diminished affective well-being. Continuous immune responses to parasitic antigens lead to a catabolic state, worsening weight loss and exhausting energy reserves. This metabolic burden, along with nutrient malabsorption due to gastrointestinal nematodes, results in poor body condition and chronic fatigue, which directly affects the camel’s ability to engage in natural behaviors such as grazing, rumination, and social interaction (77).

Parasitic diseases significantly reduce essential productive outputs, such as milk yield, meat production, and draft capacity. Trypanosomiasis is especially harmful to work performance due to fatigue caused by anemia (22). Gastrointestinal helminths hinder nutrient absorption, resulting in decreased weight gain and growth stunting, which poses a threat to food security in communities that depend on camels (78). Ectoparasite infestations (for instance, ticks and biting flies) lead to irritability and disrupt feeding and resting patterns, further diminishing productivity and welfare. The reduction in milk production not only impacts income generation but also jeopardizes the nutrition and health of suckling calves, raising concerns about intergenerational welfare.

Parasitic infections have a significant detrimental impact on reproductive performance. T. evansi is linked to abortion, stillbirth, and decreased conception rates (79). Chronic parasitism leads to poor body condition, which in turn delays puberty and prolongs postpartum anestrus in females, while also diminishing libido and semen quality in males. These issues pose a threat to herd sustainability and the resilience of pastoralists. Furthermore, nutritional status is adversely affected through various mechanisms: blood-feeding parasites (such as Haemonchus spp. and ticks) cause anemia and hypoproteinemia; protozoal infections like coccidiosis lead to diarrhea and dehydration, particularly in juveniles (22). The camel’s renowned ability to withstand drought is compromised by hyperthermia, panting, and cutaneous water loss induced by parasites, undermining a crucial adaptive advantage in arid regions (80).

The welfare of camels is greatly affected by the responses of their owners to parasitism. Delays in treatment caused by limited access to veterinary care, financial limitations, or a lack of knowledge can prolong the suffering of these animals and may result in the culling of those that are severely weakened (8). Restraint techniques employed during treatment (such as limb-tying and nose-pegging) can cause additional stress and injury if not executed with proper training. Numerous camel parasites pose zoonotic risks, including Toxoplasma gondii (found in milk), Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., and Echinococcus granulosus (3). Public apprehension regarding transmission can lead to the stigmatization of camel products, decrease their market value, and result in neglect or improper management practices, which indirectly worsen welfare issues (81). These dynamics underscore the crucial interconnections between animal welfare, public health, and economic stability (Figure 2).

The effectiveness of surveillance and timely intervention is severely compromised by limited diagnostic capabilities in remote pastoralist areas (82). Many diagnoses are based on clinical signs or low-sensitivity microscopy, which often fail to identify subclinical cases or co-infections, leading to considerable underreporting and misdiagnosis. This diagnostic gap has direct and severe welfare consequences: delayed or incorrect treatment results in the progression of preventable suffering (20). Animals endure prolonged pain from conditions like mange, chronic debilitation from trypanosomiasis, and ongoing distress from gastrointestinal parasites, all of which could be alleviated with earlier, accurate detection (2). Innovative field-applicable tools such as pen-side serological assays, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP, a simple, rapid DNA amplification technique that does not require a thermal cycler), and portable sequencing technologies present promising opportunities for enhanced, rapid diagnosis (83, 84). However, their deployment faces significant hurdles, including cost, the need for a stable cold chain, and technical training, which currently limit their practicality in nomadic systems. The development of affordable, robust, and camel-specific point-of-care tests remains a critical unmet need (82, 85).

Climate change is a significant driver modifying the distribution and intensity of parasitic diseases in camels (3). Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns are broadening the geographical range of vectors, such as ticks and biting flies, for pathogens like Trypanosoma evansi and Anaplasma spp. (81). Concurrently, desertification and shifts in land use are pushing camel husbandry into new areas, potentially exposing naïve populations to unfamiliar parasite communities (82, 83). Predictive ecological modeling and longitudinal studies are crucial for anticipating these changes and formulating proactive, welfare-focused mitigation strategies, such as targeted parasite control in emerging risk areas (85).

The critical shortage of formal veterinary services in nomadic and pastoralist systems remains a fundamental limitation to improving camel welfare (7). While ethnoveterinary knowledge is valuable and culturally important, it is essential to complement it with evidence-based parasitology and welfare-oriented management practices (82). A key strategy is educating and empowering community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) (86, 87). Training CAHWs in rational drug use, basic diagnostics (e.g., fecal egg counts, recognizing clinical signs of major diseases), and low-stress handling techniques can dramatically improve early detection and enable more humane and timely interventions (88). Such community-level programs bridge the gap between pastoralists and distant veterinary clinics (9), fostering a proactive approach to camel health and welfare (89, 90). Ultimately, increased investment in research and greater policy focus are necessary to elevate camel health (83) and welfare on national and global veterinary and agricultural agendas (80).

Accurate and prompt diagnosis serves as the foundation for effective management of parasites. Although microscopy is still extensively utilized in field environments, its shortcomings in identifying subclinical cases or co-infections highlight the need for more sensitive and specific diagnostic tools. Molecular diagnostics, such as PCR, LAMP, and next-generation sequencing, along with serological tests like ELISA, provide enhanced detection capabilities but must be tailored for pathogens specific to camels and the contexts of pastoralists (91). Investing in point-of-care rapid testing, mobile laboratory units, and telemedicine solutions can help close diagnostic gaps in remote regions, facilitating earlier interventions and alleviating chronic suffering (92). Additionally, integrating camel health into national surveillance systems is essential for producing comprehensive epidemiological data and guiding evidence-based control strategies (93).

Currently, there are no commercially available vaccines specifically for camel parasites; however, progress in immunoprophylaxis for similar livestock pathogens offers a promising path. Research into recombinant antigens, viral vector systems, and nanoparticle delivery methods could lead to effective vaccines against major pathogens such as Trypanosoma evansi or key tick species (94). Meanwhile, integrated vector management, which includes rotating acaricides, using biological controls like entomopathogenic fungi, and making environmental adjustments, can help reduce ectoparasite populations while addressing concerns about chemical resistance and ecological impacts (21). The targeted use of endectocides, such as ivermectin, should be carefully adjusted to minimize resistance risks and align with seasonal changes in parasite prevalence (95).

Improvements in sustainable welfare depend on the knowledge and practices of camel owners and handlers. Educational initiatives involving community participation, delivered through mobile technologies, workshops, and visual aids, can significantly improve understanding of parasite life cycles, zoonotic risks, and early disease detection (83). Training programs for CAHWs should emphasize welfare-sensitive handling, rational drug use, and preventive strategies such as rotational grazing and improved sanitation (96). Empowering local stakeholders promotes early intervention, reduces treatment delays, and encourages culturally sustainable practices.

Medical and procedural interventions must prioritize the well-being of animals. Stressful restraint techniques (such as forced recumbency and nose-pegging) ought to be substituted with low-stress alternatives that are informed by the ethology of camels (22). Guidelines regarding drug administration, which include correct dosing, withdrawal periods, and the avoidance of toxic combinations, must be widely disseminated to avert iatrogenic harm (97). Likewise, topical applications (for instance, acaricides) should be carefully formulated and applied to reduce cutaneous irritation and systemic side effects.

The welfare of camels is significantly overlooked in livestock policies and global welfare standards. It is crucial to achieve legislative acknowledgment to allocate resources for parasite management, subsidize veterinary services, and facilitate research projects (98, 99). Furthermore, it is vital to incorporate camel health into One Health surveillance systems to effectively tackle zoonotic parasites (such as Echinococcus granulosus and Cryptosporidium spp.) at the intersection of human, animal, and environmental health (86). As climate change and the expansion of agriculture exacerbate parasitic risks, policy frameworks should foster resilience through strategies that prioritize welfare (Table 3).