The study was conducted in four villages located within the Mahikeng Local Municipality of Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality in the North West Province viz Lokaleng, Mogosane, Lokgalong, and Masutlhe (Figure 1). The villages included in this study are located on traditional lands governed by traditional leaders (known as Dikgosi). Nearly 100% of the population in each village is Black African, with the majority being Setswana speakers at an average of 90.3%. Masutlhe village covers an area of 80.93 km², with a population of 3,085 and 811 households. Lokaleng village has a total population of 2,661 and covers an area of 80.93 km², with 715 households. The population of Lokgalong village is the smallest among the four villages, with only 233 people (7.13 per km²) and an area of 32.67 km². Lastly, the village of Mogosane has an area of 34.41 km², a population of 1,927, and 433 households (16). The villages are situated North West of the town of Mahikeng and are under the traditional leadership of the Barolong Boo-Ratshidi, an ethnic group of the Batswana which is found in both South Africa and Botswana (17). Mahikeng town is the headquarter for the Barolong Boo Ratshidi people and also the Capital of the North West Province. Barolong boo Ratshidi, like any other Batswana ethnic group, has a strong farming history and presence. In rural areas of the Mahikeng Local Municipality, agriculture is the main economic activity and the main livestock commodities are cattle, sheep, goats and chicken (18). They depend on livestock for daily needs such as milk, meat, and draught power and important cultural ceremonies such as weddings and funerals. Livestock symbolizes wealth, strength, and stability to Barolong (17). The climatic condition in Mahikeng Local Municipality is typical semi-arid savannah with a mean annual summer rainfall of 500 mm with temperatures that range from 17° to 31°C (62° to 88°F) in the summer and from 3° to 21°C (37° to 70°F) in the winter (19).

An individual EVM practitioner and knowledge holder were the unit of analysis. The target population consisted of members of the communities who had some knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine and, thus, referred to as ethnoveterinary practitioners (EVPs). The EVPs included livestock farmers and traditional healers known and recognized by communities in each of the four study villages.

The sample consisted of twenty-one ethnoveterinary practitioners (EVP) from the four villages. The identification and recruitment EVPs were done through snowball sampling (20). In brief, after each interview, participants were requested to refer the next participant for the study, and the person was then approached and recruited to participate. The names of the first participants in Lokaleng (n = 6), Lokgalong (n = 7), and Mogosane (n = 4) villages were provided by the translators, while in Masutlhe village (n = 4), the name of the first participant was provided by the office of the Kgosi’s (Chief). The snowballing continued until no new ethnoveterinary practitioner could be identified (20).

The data collection tool consisted of a semi-structured interview schedule with closed and open-ended questions. Data was collected using semi-structured face-to-face, in-depth interviews with participants. The interviews were conducted in the local Setswana language with the assistance of translators. Information provided by participants during the interviews was captured on a voice recorder. Although the researchers originally intended to conduct individual interviews with each participant, they ended up conducting most of the interviews in groups of two or more people, following the African community style. To ensure participants’ comfort, all interviews were conducted at a place of their choice, including their homes and informal gathering places. To authenticate the data, member checking was done with the participants after the data was transcribed to verify accuracy of the information (21, 22).

Medicinal plants mentioned during interviews were identified by participants during field walks in grazing, crop, and open lands in the different villages and the open fields at the North-West University. The field walks aimed to observe live plants in situ and collect plant samples for botanical identification. The whole plant or plant parts were collected and pressed to prepare the herbarium specimens. Thirty herbarium specimens were botanically identified at the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and one herbarium specimen was botanically identified at the AP Goossens Herbarium, Potchefstroom campus, North-West University.

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the North West University Research Ethics Committee (Ethics number: NWU-00554-16-A9). Additionally, the researcher followed traditional protocols and sought permission from the traditional leadership (Dikgosi) in the four villages before conducting research among the people. All village Chiefs allowed the researcher to conduct the study in their respective villages. Prior informed consent was obtained from all participants before the interview. The participants were informed about the study and how the data collected would be handled. The consent form also clarified that the data collection process was voluntary, and that personal information would not be published without their permission. During the interviews, the researchers followed Batswana cultural protocols, including appropriate dress codes, time observation, and respect for participants. This required the researchers to immerse themselves in the culture of the communities to gain an understanding and appreciation of the cultural values, learn the cultural “dos and don’ts” of the Batswana, and improve their knowledge of the Setswana language.

All participants in the study were farmers, and only one was also a traditional healer. Most participants were men (85.7%) above the age of 50 years (Table 1). When asked about their farming experience, all participants indicated they were “born into farming.” All the participants were long-time residents of their respective villages, and all were Batswana.

A total of 31 medicinal plants were documented for 25 animal health indications (uses), including fracture repair, protection of livestock after the death of a family member (sefifi), uterine cleansing, retained placenta, gala (general malaise due to bile reflux and gallsickness in cattle), diarrhea of ruminants, gastrointestinal parasites, blood cleansing, pain, maintenance of pregnancy after a previous abortion in cows, and reproductive efficiency/fertility enhancement as shown in Table 2. Many of the plants documented have been reported in other studies in South Africa. However, most of the treatment indications are different, which represents a new potential for the use of the plants. Additionally, a novel finding was that 10/31 (32.3%) medicinal plants were reported for the first time for ethnoveterinary medicine in South Africa. The plants were Amaranthus lividus, Dicoma galpinii, Kleinia longiflora, Cadaba aphylla, Cucumis myriocarpus, a Thesium spp., Acrotome inflata, Asparagus nodulosus, Cannabis sativa, and Euphorbia serpens.

The medicinal plants recorded in this study belonged to seventeen plant families, and the most common plant family was Asteraceae, with six plant species, followed by Fabaceae with four plant species, and Solanaceae, with three plant species. These families are among those found to be popular in South African ethnoveterinary medicine according to reviews by McGaw and Eloff (1), McGaw et al. (7), Selogatwe et al. (13), Chakale et al. (15). The similarities in the findings those reviews, and the current study demonstrate that most South African indigenous communities have a consensus on the medicinal value of certain plant families. However, it is to be noted that in those reviews, the Fabaceae family had the highest number of plant species used in EVM, whilst in this study the family came second to Astreraceae. In three other studies published of EVM of Batswana in the North West Province by Chakale et al. (10), Van der Merwe et al. (22) and Moichwanetse et al. (27), Fabaceae family was the also among the most popular. According to McGaw et al. (7), the dominance of Fabeceae family in ethnoveterinary medicine of South Africa is attributed to the abundance of the family in South Africa (7). Furthermore, Chakale et al. (10) suggest that the popularity of certain plant families may be influenced by traditional beliefs, ease of harvesting and storage, as well as evidence of previous efficacy.

The study revealed that various plant parts were utilised in the preparation of ethnoveterinary remedies, including aerial parts, thorns, fruit juice, bark, leaves, roots, bulbs, tubers, and whole plants, as illustrated in Figure 2. Out of a total of sixty-five remedy preparation methods that were documented, roots (50.8%) are the most used plant parts, followed by leaves with 16.9%. The use of fruit juice, thorns, and barks is rare in the study area. In addition, most remedies are prepared as decoctions and administered orally (41.5%). The second most popular method of preparation and administration was oral infusions (37%). Other administration forms included topical, exposure, splinting, metaphysical application and feed additives. The preference for the use of roots to make remedies as reported here was also documented among the Batswana of Madikwe and Dinokana in studies conducted by Van der Merwe et al. (22) and Moichwanetse et al. (27), respectively. This may indicate a cultural preference for roots among Batswana people. However, another study by Chakale et al. (10) found that leaves were the most used, although the use of roots came in a close second. These findings contradict those by Masika and Afolayan (28) and Maphosa and Masika (29) who reported the high use of leaves for ethnoveterinary remedies in communities in the Eastern Cape.

Fifteen out of the thirty-one medicinal plants in the study had multiple uses as single-plant or poly-plant remedies. Single-plant remedies with multiple indications included Senna italica, Dicoma galpinii, Aloe zebrina, Drimia sanguinea, Boophone disticha, Thesium sp., Asparagus nodulosus, and Gomphacarpus fruticosus. Senna italica (Figure 3) had the highest number of indications (7) in animal health care. The plant was mentioned for treating animal health problems such as gala (general malaise due to bile reflux), diarrheoa in calves, cows, and sheep, retained placenta, abortions, gastrointestinal parasites, general health, and blood cleansing. A participant best expressed the importance of this plant among participants in the study area in the following excerpt: “Sebetebete ke sona molemo wa Setswana,” expressing the importance of the plant to Batswana people. The other evidence of the importance of sebetebete in the study area is that it is almost always mentioned first by participants during interviews. This indicates that it is probably the first plant in participants’ minds when issues of traditional animal healing are discussed. In addition, many participants also indicated that it was also a great medicine for gala in humans. These narratives are best represented by the words of a participant as follows: “Sebetebete is great for ‘gala’ in all livestock and even yourself. When you have ‘gala,’ you prepare it and drink it. You will feel the ‘gala’ going down and you will release it in a form of diarrhoea.”

Another plant with many treatment indications (5) is Aloe zebrina (kgophane). The plant is used for abscess ripening in ruminants. However, it is also the most popular plant for treating poultry diseases. The indications for the plant in poultry include fleas, helminths, general health, and gala. Dicoma galpinii (Figure 3) is another plant with five ethnoveterinary indications, including diarrhoea, gallsickness, blood cleansing, uterine cleansing after abortion, and stomach pain. Other plants, including Drimia sanguinea (sekaname) and Withania somnifera (modikasope), also had a higher number of indications (4) but were also included in poly-plant mixtures with other plant species. Eight poly-plant remedies with two, three, or four plant combinations were documented to treat various diseases, and some poly-plant remedies have multiple indications. The pluralism in treatment found in this study is not unique in the South Africa context, similar findings of were reported by Van der et al. (22) where approximately twenty of the plants species out of forty-five recorded, had more than one ethnoveterinary indication. Also, Masika and Afolayan (28), found that thirteen of the thirty-six plant species recorded had two or more indications. This phenomenon has been reported in most studies conducted in South Africa that have documented ethnoveterinary medicine as reported in different reviews (1, 7, 15) and studies (22, 27). The pluralism in treatment indications means that indigenous communities have discovered the multiple medical effects of certain plants because medicinal plants possess different compounds that have different effects when applied to animals.

The poly-plant remedy is referred to as pitsa in the Setswana language. Plants such as Euphorbia serpens, Cadaba aphylla, Solanum campylacanthum, Solanum lichtensteinii, Withania somnifera, Grewia flava and Bulbine abyssinica are only used as part of poly-plant remedies. The documenting of several poly-plant remedies in this study confirmed the cultural importance of pitsa among Batswana people and the purpose is to increase the curative potency of remedy (10). This finding is similar the three other studies among the Batswana (10, 22, 27). However, poly-plant remedies are not very common among the Vatsonga and Vhavenda of Limpopo Province as few poly-plant remedies are documented (12, 21, 30). However, poly-plant combinations are found to be a common practice in the Eastern Cape (9, 28, 29, 31).

To determine medicinal plants that are culturally significant for treating animal diseases in the study area, the informant consensus factors were calculated (F_IC) for six animal health diseases with a higher frequency of mention. The conditions were as follows: fractures; diarrhoea; gala (general malaise); retained placenta; coughs; and blood cleansing. The informant consensus factor values show agreement among participants for treatment with medicinal plants for five animal diseases. The highest F_IC values (between 0 and 1) were used to generate a column chart (Figure 4). It was observed that there is agreement among participants in the treatment of diarrhoea, gala, coughs, retained placenta, and fractures. The highest consensus values were for treating coughs using Helichrysum caespititium (phateyangaka) and Senna italica (sebetebete) for treating gala both at 0.83. Senna italica (sebetebete) is also a significant plant of choice for treating diarrhoea at FIC value 0.7. Treatment of fracture using Vachellia karroo (mookana) had a F_IC value 0.6. The lowest F_IC value was for treating retained placenta using Boophone disticha at 0.25 (1).

As stated above, Senna italica emerged as plant of cultural significance. This plant is recommended for treating calf diarrhoea, general malaise due to bile build-up (gala), gallsickness, retained placenta, abortions, gastrointestinal parasites, and blood cleansing. In the study by Van der Merwe et al. (22) among Batswana people of Madikwe, the plant was used to treat gallsickness, diarrhoea, general intestinal diseases, heartwater, anthrax, and pneumonia. Though the treatment of gallsickness and diarrhoea was the only similar indications in both studies, the multiple treatment indications of the plant in the two studies show the importance of the plant among the Batswana people. The findings of this study also concur with those of Gabalebatse et al. (6) who conducted a study in among Batswana of Botswana, in that study the plant was recommended for calf diarrhoea. The treatment of retained placenta found in the current study is a similar finding to the study by Moichwanetse et al. (27). Interestingly, the mention of Senna italica in other South African ethnoveterinary surveys is few, as shown in the review by McGaw et al. (7) despite the fact that the plant has many beneficial medicinal properties.

Senna italica has been scientifically tested to assess its medicinal potential and was discovered to possess different phytochemicals as reviewed by Masoko et al. (32). The plant is reported to possess alkaloids, quinines, anthraquinones and flavonoids. Furthermore, Dabai et al. (33) also determined the presence of steroids, alkaloids, and flavonoids. These compounds give Senna italica different medical effects that include anti-inflammatory, purgative, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-tick and antioxidant medicinal properties (32, 34, 35). Batswana people likely discovered the plant’s broad-spectrum healing properties, which explains their trust in its medicinal value.

Helichrysum caespititium was another culturally important medicinal plant in the study area for the treatment of coughs caused by respiratory tract infections. This is not a surprise as the plant has similar uses in humans, the plant was reported by South Africans for use in treatment of respiratory tract infection symptoms such as cough, fever, blood in the sputum, flu (influenza) and chest complaints (36, 37). The plant extract is reported to exhibit antimicrobial activities during testing by different researchers (37) and found to possess inhibitory activity against drug-sensitive strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (36). Those finding validate the use of this plants by the indigenous communities in this study.

Boophone disticha was also found to be an important treatment of retained placenta in this study. A similar treatment indication for the plant as documented by Moichwanetse et al. (27). In addition, the plant was reported for use in cases of abortions in cattle by Van der Merwe et al. (22) and though not the same indication as found in the current study the findings shows that the plant is significant in treatment of reproductive problems among Batswana people. According to the review by Nair et al. (38), the plant is reported to contain a unique alkaloid constituents which are dividable into six structurally-diverse groups. These alkaloid constituents give the plant its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. The participants in this study claimed that the plant has the ability to cause foetal membrane expulsion and cleanses the uterus. The cleansing ability can be validated by the antimicrobial activity of the plant (38). However, its ability to cause foetal membrane expulsions could not be substantiated at this point.

Issues of semantics in the names of Batswana medicinal plants emerged during an interview with one of the participants. The researcher had mispronounced the word phateyangaka (Helichrysum caespititium) and the participant took time to explain the proper pronunciation and why the plant is referred to by this name. The participant indicated that the plant spreads out on the ground like a traditional reed mat (traditional carpet). Thus, it is referred to as a mat belonging to a traditional healer. The association with a traditional healer stem from the fact that the plant is very effective in healing. The best explanation of the symbolic naming of medicinal plants by Batswana people was as follows: “Batswana people when naming medicinal plants, give them names that show the plant’s purpose in the body.” A description of the names of some plants as provided by participants were as follows:

“Mookana” (Vachellia karroo) is used to repair fractures either during go tlhabela thobega or as splints; its name, refers to a plant with the capacity to attract others to itself. This meant that when the plant is used to treat fractures, it would cause the broken fragments to pull towards each other, thus closing the gap of the fracture line faster.

This is the first report on the symbolic naming of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in South Africa. The phenomenon is best explained by Possa and Khotso (39), who extensively explored the practice of naming of ethnobotanical plants among Basotho. Possa and Khotso (39) concluded that most vernacular medicinal plant names are a literal interpretation of the plant’s healing properties. Additionally, according to that study, a name can influence a situation or characteristics of a person or object. This sentiment is shared by the participants in the current study.

Participants were requested to indicate their confidence level for the medicinal plants they mentioned as ‘low’, ‘medium’, or ‘high’ confidence. Only one plant, Babiana hypogaea (thuge), used to treat goat diarrhoea was rated low by the informing participant. The participant indicated that the reason for the low confidence was because he was not so sure of its effectiveness and had never used it himself. Regarding the rest of the medicinal plants, participants had high confidence in their efficacy, and such confidence is best represented by the excerpt from a participant: “I use traditional medicines for my livestock and that is why I was the first participant you were referred to in the village. I know these plants and I am always in the look out for them in the field when I am herding my animals. I use them and they are effective and swift to work.”

Another participant expressed trust in EVM: “I cannot remember all the remedies that I once knew but what I still remember, I still use, and they still work very well for me.” In addition to the trust for EVM, some participants believed the remedies they used in the olden days were not too many because there were fewer diseases than currently. A participant expresses this sentiment as follows: “Long ago, we did not have as many diseases as we do today. In fact, livestock products did not make a person sick like it happens these days with diseases such as gout. In the olden days, when a cow was sick, we would use traditional remedies and the following day, the animal would be as healthy as if it was never sick.” The belief in ethnoveterinary medicine was echoed by all participants. One participant summed up this belief in the following excerpts: “These remedies work and since you are a scientist, go and test them and you will come back and testify.”

In South Africa, traditional healing is widely trusted and preferred by many indigenous communities. Studies indicate that around 70%–80% of black South Africans consult traditional healers for medical advice (7, 8), which highlights the people’s faith in this form of medicine. Similarly, a high level of trust and confidence is observed in the use of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) in South Africa (7, 15). For instance, a study conducted in the Eastern Cape Province by Masika et al. (40) showed that 89% of respondents trusted EVM. This trust in EVM is not only limited to South Africa but is also found in many farming communities throughout Africa, where some livestock keepers rely solely on ethnoveterinary medicine even when Western veterinary medicines are available (41).

During the data collection process, the researcher noticed that the interviews with older participants always started slowly as they took their time to gather their thoughts and recollect their knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine. Most of the older participants admitted to having forgotten some of the EVM knowledge that was practiced by their grandparents, parents, and themselves during their active farming days. Additionally, all participants agreed that the knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine has been lost over time and continues to disappear. There were three factors identified as the cause of this phenomenon; namely, aging which leads to diminishing memories, availability of Western medicine, and disinterest of the younger generation. In the next sections, availability of Western medicine and disinterest of the younger generation.

In this study, the issue of conservation of medicinal plant species, the seriousness of the situation was highlighted by two participants during a field walk. One participant expressed concern that other plants were difficult to find due to traditional healers depleting the fields of these plants. They blamed the improper collection methods of traditional healers from outside the village who harvest without considering plant conservation. The second incidence was with the plant Withania somnifera (modikasope). After the interview, the participant was reluctant to identify the plant in the field. Instead, the participant collected a fresh part of the root and some of its arial parts and delivered them to the researchers’ office. On enquiry, the researcher was informed that the plant had become very scarce as traditional healers were depleting it. Thus, the participant did not want to reveal the location of the plant in the village to prevent its extinction. The challenge of medicinal plant species conservation was not unique to Withania somnifera. During other field walks with participants, plants such as Boophone disticha, Cadaba aphylla and Drimia sanguinea could not be identified in the fields where they were expected to be found. In such cases, the plant had to be “hunted” in other locations. Fortunately, all plants that were documented in this study were found.

Plant conservation is a critical issue in the use of medicinal plants worldwide, including South Africa (48). The increasing use of these plants has led to overexploitation, which poses a threat to biodiversity (49). To address this issue, Botha et al. (48) suggest that cultivating important plant species in various areas of South Africa could help preserve them. They also recommend implementing local-level management interventions in the harvesting and marketing of medicinal plants, as well as regional cooperation in management strategies and policies for harvesting plants for national and international markets. These recommendations, particularly cultivation and local-level management interventions, could be considered to conserve plants within Mahikeng Local Municipality.