Ticks are the most important vectors for animal and human diseases worldwide, and these arthropod vectors are associated with different pathogenic microorganisms (1). The number of tick-borne pathogens is increasing with the passage of time because of the discovery of novel species of bacteria, viral pathogens, and protozoan parasites (2). A specific association exists between vector-borne pathogens and their associated hosts, so it is very important to identify and characterize tick species. Because of the probable threat of ticks to humans and animals, further studies are needed to understand the relationship between tick-borne pathogens (TBP) and tick species (3).

Almost 80% of the world cattle population is affected by ticks and tick born diseases and India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are included in the endemic regions. Several factors, including geo-climatic conditions, different animal species, understanding/knowledge of the farmers, and farm management practices, are responsible for the variations in tick prevalence in specific areas. A previous study has shown that different animal species have different tick populations (4).

Domesticated animals in tropical and subtropical areas like Pakistan are infected with tick-borne bacterial and parasitic diseases. Ticks as vectors and related tick-borne infections are prevalent in arid areas of Punjab, Pakistan (5). In a survey of ixodid ticks in Turkey, 11 tick species were isolated (6). Rhipicephalus ticks of cattle origin have a negative impact on livestock production, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. Four different Rhipicephalus tick species have been identified in different areas of Iran (7).

A recent study conducted on equines in Pakistan, where 5 species of hard ticks belonging to 3 genera were reported, these includes Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus, and Haemaphysalis (8). Similarly, Hyalomma anatolicum was found infesting horses in Balochistan, Pakistan (9), while hard tick Nosomma monstrosum was reported for the first time on Asian water buffalo in Pakistan (10). Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus turanicus, and Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides were detected for the first time infesting wild animals in Pakistan (11). Hard ticks of the genus Hyalomma can act as a vector for Babesia and Theileria species in most endemic parts of Asia and Africa (12, 13). Seeking the importance of soft ticks in Pakistan, previously a study was conducted revealing the life cycle of Argas persicus for the first time (14). In Pakistan, ticks have a wide distribution depending on ecological and geographical patterns (15). Among domesticated animals, dogs have been reported as risk factors for ticks and tick-borne infections (16). In a study performed at a cow farm in Rajanpur, Pakistan, the total economic loss due to ticks and associated tick-borne diseases in terms of decreased milk production, mortality, and medication was 13.83% (17). The livestock industry is seriously affected by tick-borne pathogens. A study conducted in Southern Punjab, Pakistan, to determine the prevalence of tick-associated diseases showed that parasite prevalence ranged from 10 to 41% depending upon geographical distribution (18). Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma ticks are the most common tick species prevalent in cows and buffaloes in Pakistan (19–21). According to a recent study conducted in different zones of KP (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Pakistan, 3 major tick species, Rhipicephalus microplus, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and Rhipicephalus turanicus, showed positive results for Anaplasma marginale, the causative agent of anaplasmosis (22). In a recent paper, future concerns about ticks and tick-borne diseases were discussed (23).

Therefore, the major objective of the present study was to assess tick infestation in livestock (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels) and associated animals (donkey, horse, and dog) in different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan The findings of current study will help to produce a geographical correlation between ticks of different regions that infect a variety of animal hosts.

In the study area, diverse tick species were observed amongst different livestock and associated animals. The diversity of tick species might be due to the climatic conditions, which are favorable for the development of many tick species (29). The ticks identified in this study are known to be facilitators of several tick-borne infections (30). Several tick species that belong to the genera Rhipicephalus, Hyalomma, Haemaphysalis, and Ixodes have been reported previously (19, 20, 29–33).

Our findings showed that 11.7% buffaloes, 11.7% cattle, 12.6% goats, 12.2% sheep, 19.6% camels, 27.4% donkeys, 23.5% horses, and 24.3% dogs were infested with ticks. The less infestation rate of ruminants could be due to extra care as they are main source of milk and meat in Pakistan. Moreover, tick infestation rate varied depending on the local climatic and environmental factors, including temperature, humidity, and the presence of host animals (34). Camels showed the highest proportion of tick infestation, which is consistent with the results of previous studies on camels (35). Our study showed that the camels were mostly infested with Hyalomma ticks; Hyalomma dromedarii showed the highest prevalence (70%), followed by Rhipicephalus (30%). Previous studies have shown a similar pattern (35, 36). Camels are mostly found in hot areas in Pakistan. Hyalomma highest rate is due top hot and humid climate. Maximum number of eggs of are laid at temperature 34°C and lowest at 15°C and hatched around 32°C and 85% humidity (31). In this study, camels showed the highest prevalence of tick infestation in the hot and dry weather of zone 1. This zone receives an average precipitation of 125–250 mm annually. Hyalomma ticks are more resistant to desiccation in general, while some species, including Hyalomma dromedarii, are well adapted to survive in dry, even desert, habitats (37). However, few studies have evaluated tick infestation of camels in Pakistan. A previous study performed in Thar Desert, Sindh, reported a tick infestation rate of 80% in camels (35).

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study of all agro-ecological zones of Pakistan with a wide coverage of livestock as well as livestock-associated equines and canines. Climatic conditions, especially temperature and precipitation, are the most important factors for tick infestation (34, 37, 38). Our study showed a wide variation in tick infestation across the different agro-ecological zones. Sheep showed the highest tick infestation rate (20%) in zone 5. The average annual precipitation in this zone is 200–1,000 mm. Buffaloes showed the highest prevalence of tick infestation in zone 6. The average annual precipitation in this zone is 1,000–3,000 mm. In this study, variations were observed in the prevalence of different tick species according to climatic conditions as well as animal variety (Table 2). We investigated a correlation between agro-climatic zones and tick genera. The infestation rate of Hyalomma was the highest in zone 1, which has hot and dry weather conditions; however, the infestation rate of Rhipicephalus was the highest in zone 4, which receives moderate precipitation. Haemaphysalis ticks were abundant in zone 9. They showed a higher infestation rate in zone 6, which is hot and humid and receives high precipitation; similarly, Ixodes showed higher infestation rates in the medium precipitation zones (Table 3). According to previous studies in Pakistan, the tick infestation rate is variable (19, 20, 29–32). High infestation rates of Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma were reported in Lahore located in zone 4 (32). A previous study in Pakistan covered 5 agro-ecological zones and reported that Hyalomma was the most prevalent tick genus in the different zones, followed by Rhipicephalus (19). A similar study in 2 districts of lower Punjab in zone 3 reported Hyalomma as the predominant genus, followed by Rhipicephalus (39). In Multan, sheep and goats showed the prevalence of Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus infestation (40). A similar study on ticks in Quetta in zone 8 has been reported (41).

The prevalence rate of Hyalomma was 70% in camels, followed by sheep and cattle (47.4 and 35.9%, respectively). Rhipicephalus was most prevalent genus in buffaloes (69.7%), followed by cattle (62.3%) and dogs (61.1%). Rhipicephalus are known as brown dog tick. The highest rate of Rhipicephalus is due to presence of dogs and cats near to buffaloes and cows (42). Haemaphysalis was more prevalent in goats (46.9%), followed by sheep (42.1%). The infestation rate is almost similar in both ruminants. Haemaphysalis is prevalent almost equal in the small ruminants. These results are concordant with the previous studies (43). Ixodes is a genus of hard body ticks showed the highest infestation rate in horses (75%), followed by donkeys (60.9%). Highest infestation rate in horses and donkeys is due to landscape and host subject to agriculture, wildlife management and climatic factors (44). Only a few reports are available on horse ticks in Pakistan (8, 9). In this study, we reported Rhipicephalus turanicus in dogs. A previous study reported that the prevalence rate of Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Hyalomma anatolicum in Punjab was about 25% (42, 45). Similar results for Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus, and Haemaphysalis were reported by a study on livestock in Pakistan (15, 43–48). A previous study reported tick transmission through wild hosts in KPK, Pakistan (15, 49), and a variety of ticks have been detected in small ruminants across Pakistan (47, 50).

In present study, the prevalence of tick infestation was evaluated in cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and camel and their associated equines and canines, such as horse, donkey, and dog, across 10 agro-ecological zones in Pakistan. Eleven tick species from four genera were identified. All of these tick species can transmit a variety of tick-borne pathogens to livestock and humans and pose a substantial threat to the community. The findings of this study will help in the development of locally appropriate tick control strategies based on habitat, animal host, and tick species in Pakistan.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

The animal study was reviewed and approved by the Ethical Committee of COMSATS University (under no. CUI/Bio/ERB/2021/42). Written informed consent was obtained from the owners for the participation of their animals in this study.

NH conducted the study and wrote the manuscript. MA helped in the sampling. AA, JY, RS, and JC revised the manuscript. RS, HA, and JC helped in the research and supervised the study. SU, SI, and SN helped in tick species identification and writing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.