Among the recent emerging surf tourism destinations is Hainan Island, China. Hainan is China's southernmost province, renowned for its tropical forests, picturesque landscapes, pristine beaches, and emerging status as a vibrant destination for surf tourism (Guibert and Taunay, 2013). Hainan is often referred to as China's surfing capital. Surfing in Hainan began in the 1980s with international pioneers, including Australian surfer Peter Drouyn, who was recruited by the government in 1985 to train a local team, though the effort ultimately did not succeed (Zanella, 2019). In the 1990s, Japanese entrepreneur Hiroshi Yonekawa established a surfboard production factory in Haikou, further stimulating local interest in surfing. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, surfing had gained a small following among a few locals and some expatriates (Wengel et al., 2023). Hainan's three most popular surfing bays are Haiting Bay, Riyue Bay, and Shimei Bay (Figure 1); each offer distinct characteristics that attract surf enthusiasts. These bays are renowned for their consistent, high-quality waves, with long, narrow coastlines shaped by underwater topography and the influence of monsoons and typhoons. Riyue Bay, for instance, is famous for its point and beach breaks. With wave heights averaging 1.5-2 meters year-round, Riyue Bay caters to professional surfers and beginners, offering larger, more consistent waves from the winter months (October to March) and smaller, more manageable waves from May to September (Tian, 2020).

Despite favorable wave conditions, surfing has not historically been part of local leisure practices in Hainan. The island's coastal communities have traditionally engaged in fishing and agriculture, which has fostered a utilitarian and often cautious relationship with the sea. As Guibert and Taunay (2013) highlight, coastal populations in China have long associated the ocean with labor and survival, through fishing, trade, and transport, rather than as a site for recreation. This perspective has shaped a cultural distance from surfing and helps explain the absence of a social predisposition toward wave-based leisure among the local population. Surfing in Hainan thus emerged primarily through external influences and the arrival of foreign surfers. Zanella (2019) documents that the sport was initially met with curiosity and even skepticism by local residents, who tended to view the sea more as a workspace or barrier than a source of enjoyment. In contemporary Hainan, locals still perceive surfing as a risky, physically demanding, and financially out-of-reach activity, especially when compared to more accessible, group-oriented leisure activities. The high cost of equipment, lack of early exposure, and absence of surf education in public schools reinforce the perception that surfing is an activity for outsiders. Although some locals are employed in surf-related tourism, their direct participation remains limited due to economic constraints and enduring cultural attitudes that continue to pose significant barriers (Zhang, 2025).

The Hainan government has recognized surfing as a significant economic opportunity and has actively promoted the sport's development, particularly through the support of international competitions. For instance, the Surfing Hainan Open was launched in 2008, followed by the government-backed Wanning International Surfing Festival in 2010. However, despite these early initiatives, surfing did not gain widespread popularity in China until around 2016, marking a significant turning point for the sport's growth. Since the inaugural International Surf Festival in December 2010, Hainan has hosted a variety of prestigious surfing events, including the WSL Women's and Men's Longboard Surfing Championships, the ISA China Cup Men's and Women's Shortboard Competitions, the ASP Men's Shortboard Hainan Classic, the WSL Women's Shortboard Championship Trials, and the Surfing Hainan Open, among others (Wengel et al., 2023).

Since the 2010 launch of international surf competitions, Wanning's Riyue Bay has rapidly evolved into China's premier surfing destination. With over 33 clubs and 170 certified coaches established by the end of 2022, the area now supports a thriving surf economy and serves as a training base for national and provincial teams. Recognized by major travel platforms as a top location for outdoor sports, Riyue Bay has gained widespread popularity among both professional surfers and lifestyle tourists, reinforcing surfing's growing mainstream appeal across China (Chen, 2023). With borders closed during the COVID-19 pandemic, large numbers of domestic tourists flocked to Hainan, which made surfing increasingly popular, especially among younger people seeking outdoor adventure (Chen, 2023; Zhao and Chen, 2024). According to Xinhua News Agency, 70% of tourists visiting Wanning are young people (18-35 years old), with an equal proportion participating in sports tourism activities such as surfing. In the first quarter of 2025, Wanning received over 3.1 million visitors and generated 3.083 billion yuan in tourism revenue. During the May Day holiday alone, the city welcomed 428,900 tourists, resulting in tourism expenditures of 275 million yuan, a year-over-year increase of more than 13% (Zhao et al., 2025).

Overlaying this grassroots growth is the strong influence of the Chinese government's initiative to promote surfing as an Olympic sport, reflecting a broader transition toward the commercialization and institutionalization of surf tourism in Hainan. This has led to investments in infrastructure (such as the PerfectSwell^® surf resort with a wave pool and the train station at Riyue Bay), has brought in foreign coaching talent, and has boosted the sport's legitimacy, easing earlier tensions with authorities who once viewed surfers with skepticism. However, this top-down development also contributes to overcrowding, with national training teams occupying prime surf spots, which risks accelerating the commercialization of these areas and potentially eroding the authentic “soul surfer” spirit that originally drew early enthusiasts. While Riyue Bay remains the focal point of surf tourism and economic growth in Hainan, its rapid commercialization has led to a division within the surf community. Post-COVID-19 visitors are drawn by Little Redbook style wave rides (Xiǎo hóng shu fēng (小红书风) means visually appealing or “instagramable”) and surf schools targeting photo-centric tourists. Among the influx of new visitors are what some in the community describe as “surfing tourist,” individuals primarily motivated by social media trends and the desire to capture picturesque moments rather than to meaningfully engage with surfing as a sport. These tourists often opt for low-cost packages (as little as 150 RMB in 2024) that include brief instruction, surfboard use, and curated photographs, contrasting with more intensive coaching sessions offered by established surf schools. While this trend supports local businesses and broadens the sport's visibility, it also reflects shifting motivations that contribute to tensions around authenticity, skill development, and ocean awareness within the local surfing scene. Therefore, some more experienced or committed surfers have gradually migrated to quieter spots (such as Shimei Bay, Fuli Bay, and Xintan Bay) seeking less commercialized, more meaningful surf experiences. This geographic and cultural split underscores the tension between commercial growth and the preservation of an authentic surfing ethos, which emerged in the early 2000s in Hainan.

In this study, the term community refers to a relationally produced, symbolically mediated, and multi-sited field of social practice through which individuals who surf (or organize around surfing) negotiate belonging, identity, and access to both material and symbolic resources. This conceptualization follows Cohen (1985) understanding of community as a symbolic construction, continually shaped through shared meanings, practices, and narratives, even when members do not interact face-to-face. The notion of wellbeing is understood in a multidimensional sense, encompassing emotional, psychological, and social aspects of health that are closely linked to individuals' interactions with nature and leisure practices (Dodge et al., 2012; Severin, 2024; White et al., 2013). Authenticity, as applied here, refers to a perceived sense of genuine connection to people, place, and practice, often constructed and negotiated within tourism and lifestyle sport contexts (Knudsen and Waade, 2010; Wang, 1999). These definitions provide a conceptual frame for interpreting the ways Chinese female surfers make meaning of their experiences and how broader cultural and socio-political dynamics shape these experiences.

Sport has traditionally been a male-dominated field, which has contributed to perceptions about differences in physical abilities and reinforced gender stereotypes (Apollo et al., 2023; Dunning, 1986). While no longer exclusive to men, sport remains shaped by male values, with women navigating these power structures (Messner, 1992; Pfister, 2010). Women challenge gender norms to express femininity in diverse ways, often facing resistance from both sides: women questioning the status quo and men trying to preserve it (Krane, 2001; Wilde, 2007). This marginalization is similarly reflected in adventure tourism, where women must navigate and negotiate constraints to access empowering experiences, challenging the dominant, masculinised narrative of risk and capability (Doran, 2016). Like many sports (Elias and Dunning, 1986), modern surfing has been male-dominated (Evers, 2009), with women frequently marginalized or portrayed through a gendered perspective that reinforces their subordinate status (Laderman, 2022; Lisahunter, 2017; Olive et al., 2015; Sanz-Marcos, 2021; Schumacher, 2025). Despite these challenges, women have gradually made significant strides in surf culture, carving out spaces for themselves both in the water and the surf industry (Chase, 2007; Comer, 2010; Comley, 2016). This shift in the surfing culture has been fuelled by a growing movement of female surfers who challenge traditional gender norms, advocating for equal representation, recognition, and opportunities in a sport that was once defined mainly by male participation (Hough-Snee and Eastman, 2017). In recent years, feminist perspectives have critically examined these dynamics, focusing on how women navigate constraints and carve out their own spaces in surfing. For example, Brennan (2016) argued that the restricted physical movements of women surfers reflect broader patterns of oppression within the sport, where women's physical capabilities are often undervalued or overlooked. By promoting more physically demanding forms of surfing, such as big-wave surfing, Schmitt and Bohuon (2021) suggested that women can be empowered to transcend these physical limitations and challenge dominant representations of gender in the sport.

Among the various strategies women in surf tourism employ to navigate constraints, maintaining a positive attitude, seeking supportive networks, and adapting to available resources are key approaches (Fendt and Wilson, 2012; Ruttenberg, 2022). These strategies demonstrate the resilience and agency of women as they actively engage with surf tourism despite societal and environmental challenges. Women's ability to adapt and persist in surf tourism highlights their growing influence within the sector and their capacity to create empowering experiences for themselves and others. The complexities of women's roles in surfing culture can be explained by the duality of their participation: while women are often celebrated for their femininity, they simultaneously face objectification and marginalization within the sport. Booth (2001) discussed the way women's visibility in the surf community can be both empowering and a source of ongoing struggle for equality and respect, revealing the paradox inherent in surfing culture. This paradox underscores the tension between empowerment and marginalization, reflecting how women navigate the male-dominated structures of surfing while challenging traditional gender expectations.

Furthermore, previous studies demonstrate the ways women assert their identities and challenge traditional gender norms in male-dominated surfing environments (Comley, 2016; Usher and Gómez, 2018; Vlachos and Garcia, 2022). These studies emphasize the need for greater inclusivity and equity in surfing culture, advocating for a surfing environment that values women's contributions equally. In this context, the work of Olive et al. (2018) added depth by exploring in what manner multiple axes of identity intersect to shape women's experiences in surfing spaces. Their intersectional feminist framework revealed how race, sexual orientation, and other identity factors contribute to both shared experiences of belonging and instances of exclusion within surfing communities. Additionally, Roy (2013) examined the ways women disrupt heteronormative and commercialized femininity within surfing. She highlighted how women challenge spatial gender expectations and create female-only spaces, asserting alternative forms of femininity. These actions demonstrate how surfing spaces allow for subtle forms of feminist agency, where women actively navigate and negotiate their presence in ways that challenge the dominant gender norms of the sport. Similarly, Olive et al. (2015) discussed the manner in which women in surfing balance their passion for the sport with the challenges posed by entrenched gender norms, exploring the strategies they use to create spaces within the surf community. Lastly, (Ince Yenilmez and Çelik 2016) addressed the historical and ongoing gender inequalities within surfing. Despite the increasing participation of women, they continue to face sexism, exclusion, and unequal recognition. The authors argued for a cultural shift in the surfing world to achieve gender equality, reinforcing the need for systemic change within surfing communities to support women's full participation and recognition.

These studies underscored the resilience, agency, and complexity of women's experiences in surfing. They emphasize the importance of challenging gendered structures within the sport and the need for greater inclusivity and equity in surf tourism and culture. As female surfers continue to challenge societal norms and carve out spaces for empowerment, the surfing community must support these efforts and create environments where women can thrive, both in and out of the water. While women face significant barriers and marginalization within the sport, they also actively challenge these constraints, carving out spaces for empowerment and inclusion. While extreme sports have been introduced to China and are expanding rapidly (Xu, 2025), existing research has largely overlooked the participation of girls and women, as well as issues related to feminism and femininity within these sporting contexts.

This study aims to explore the lived experiences of female surfers in Hainan, China, within the context of the post-COVID-19 pandemic surge in surf tourism, focusing on the way these experiences reflect shifts in identity, behavior, and cultural transformation. Unlike existing studies, none of which have taken place in China (where cultural, social, and political factors present unique challenges and opportunities), this research offers valuable insights into the way female surfers navigate these dynamics in a rapidly evolving destination. By examining the intersection of gender and surf tourism in a Chinese context, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the social and cultural forces shaping the future of surf tourism. Understanding these shifts is crucial for sustainable tourism development, particularly as the tourism industry seeks to balance growth with the preservation of local cultures and environments. Supporting diverse experiences, particularly those of underrepresented groups such as female surfers, can foster more inclusive and regenerative tourism forms that benefit both visitors and local communities. This study, grounded in phenomenology, does not focus on research questions or hypotheses, but rather on participants' lived experiences. By shedding light on these dynamics, the study also offers insights into how surf tourism can evolve to be more equitable, sustainable, and respectful of local cultures.

The theme of personal transformation in surfing wasmultifaceted, with profound emotional and psychological shifts occurring for the 12 women involved in this study. For them, surfing served as a journey of self-discovery, pushing boundaries and developing a deeper understanding of personal capabilities. This resonated with how Chinese female surfers represent themselves on social media. For instance, Xiaoyecai (小野蔡), a surfing enthusiast, described the ways “surfing makes me find myself! From girls‘ power to surfer girls' power, surfing makes me fearless” (Xiaoyecai, 2025). Furthermore, this research illustrated that surfing provides Chinese women with the opportunity to break away from traditional gender roles, where societal expectations often dictate their career choices and personal aspirations. Female surfers in Hainan shared the ways mastering the sport has empowered them physically and mentally, helping them build confidence and challenge societal norms. Two participants shared that through surfing, they discovered the strength to pursue their passions, becoming a yoga instructor and a coffee barista with their own coffee shop, career choices that were once considered unconventional by their families. In these cases, surfing became more than just a sport; it was a tool for women to reclaim control over their lives, allowing them to pursue education or careers they are passionate about, rather than those chosen by their parents.

Surfing enabled them to confront and overcome both physical and emotional challenges, which, in turn, fostered resilience. Participants frequently spoke about how surfing served as a tool for empowerment, enabling them to transcend traditional societal roles and expectations. As such, surfing allowed women to challenge expectations around family obligations, gender roles, body image standards, “golden rice bowl” career choices (stable and well-paid job), and public independence. By embracing the sport, women break free from societal pressures to be passive, modest, and predominantly focused on domestic duties, instead asserting their strength, independence, and self-expression. As one participant, Kate, shared: “It was through surfing that I learned to push through my own limits... I discovered a strength in me that I never knew existed before” (Interview with Kate). Surfing provided a safe space and a sense of community. Here, community is understood not merely as a social grouping but as a network defined by shared values, emotional connection, and mutual support (Comer, 2010; Sarason, 1974). Many women sought community, connection, and a shared sense of purpose, often finding support through informal feminist networks and peer relationships (Hooks, 1984). This notion of community (as both a refuge and a source of empowerment) was reflected in the experiences of female surfers in Hainan. Surfing became more than a personal pursuit; it offered a space for women to reclaim autonomy and build emotional resilience through the strength of collective belonging and mutual support. Participants described their surfing community as a space where women can defy these expectations, embracing physicality, independence, and self-determination. For eight women in this research, the sport became not only a means of personal achievement but also a way to reclaim autonomy over their bodies and choices, and create their own life path, which is full of exciting transformations, a sense of community, and a balanced life.

Empowerment is often linked to feminism in Western contexts, and Western feminist frameworks often emphasize individual emancipation and resistance to patriarchal structures. However, feminist discourse in China is shaped by a unique interplay of socialist gender ideologies, Confucian values (in this socio-cultural setting connected to the obedience of women), and contemporary market forces, making expressions of autonomy and empowerment more nuanced and context-specific (Piao et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2021). In the Chinese context, women's participation in sport has historically been shaped by shifting political ideologies from Confucian constraints to Maoist mass participation policies and later elite-focused national strategies, resulting in both opportunities and limitations for female empowerment (Hong and Li, 2023; Pavlidis and O'Brien, 2017). In contemporary China, alternative or extreme sports, such as surfing, reflect broader neoliberal and globalized trends in youth culture and lifestyle consumption, yet remain entangled with local gender norms, state regulation, and constrained feminist expression.

In this study, empowerment is understood not merely as individual transformation but as a complex, context-dependent process shaped by broader socio-economic structures. Drawing on literature that critiques neoliberal constructions of agency (Gill and Scharff, 2011; McRobbie, 2009), the women's narratives reflect both resistance and complicity in relation to market-driven ideals of self-care, autonomy, and emotional fulfillment. In this landscape, sport (particularly emerging leisure practices like surfing) offers Chinese women new avenues for self-expression, identity formation, and bodily autonomy, even as these experiences are mediated by social class, urban privilege, and the commercialization of female empowerment narratives (Pavlidis and O'Brien, 2017; Xiong and Li, 2023; Xu, 2006). Surfing in this context offers not only physical liberation and joy but also becomes entangled in discourses of lifestyle entrepreneurship, wellbeing, and self-optimisation, central themes in contemporary neoliberal femininity. Thus, empowerment is not treated as a fixed outcome, but as a negotiated and often ambivalent process shaped by participants' social positioning, aspirations, and access to resources.

In particular, there was a strong sense of liberation for women in the surfing community. Surfing provided an avenue to break away from rigid gender norms, which often prescribed certain behaviors or roles for women. In Chinese society, where traditional expectations surrounding femininity, family roles, and modesty remain deeply rooted, engaging in a sport like surfing (typically perceived as masculine, physically demanding, and public) allows women to challenge societal conventions. By occupying coastal spaces, embracing athleticism, and asserting their presence in a male-dominated environment, women surfers redefine what it means to be female in a rapidly changing yet culturally conservative society. Mia mentioned:

Surfing became a form of rebellion, a rejection of outdated notions of what women are “supposed” to do, giving them the courage to express themselves authentically. In moving to Riyue Bay and becoming surfers, our research participants carved out a space where strength, independence, and vulnerability could coexist beyond the confines of societal judgment. This finding aligns with the work of (Pavlidis and O'Brien 2017), who found that female roller derby skaters viewed the sport as a means of expressing and sharing their feminist sensibilities.

Moreover, the theme of mindfulness surfaces as an integral aspect of personal transformation for the female surfers in this study. For the participants, surfing was not just a physical activity but also a deeply spiritual one. The rhythm of the waves, the feeling of being in sync with nature, and the heightened sensory awareness cultivated by surfing all contribute to mental wellbeing. Grace reflected: “I've found that surfing has become a form of meditation for me... When I'm out there, it's just me and the ocean, and it allows me to focus, reflect, and stay grounded.” Mindfulness practices, including yoga, guided mindfulness sessions, and sound-based meditation with singing bowls (metal bowls played by striking or rubbing the rim to create sustained tones and vibrations), were integrated into surfing routines, deepening participants' emotional connection to the activity. Olivia shared: “Surfing taught me to be present, to embrace the moment. And yoga has helped me stay calm and focused, which has been essential both in and out of the water.” These practices had a positive impact on emotional wellbeing, offering tools for grounding, self-awareness, and stress relief, benefits that 11 participants struggled to access in their everyday lives.

In this study, wellbeing is seen as a fluid, subjective experience rooted in participants' embodied and emotional engagements with surfing. Rather than relying on a universal or medicalised definition, wellbeing here is expressed through participants' descriptions of feeling more centered, emotionally resilient, and connected to themselves and their environment. Practices such as yoga, meditation, and the use of standing bells were integrated into daily routines, allowing surfers to cultivate mindfulness and inner balance. These practices, combined with the physical immersion in the ocean, offered participants a sense of grounding and relief from everyday pressures, especially those stemming from gendered expectations and urban lifestyles. Thus, wellbeing is understood not as a static condition but as a dynamic process of personal alignment, healing, and self-affirmation fostered through the surfing lifestyle. In the Chinese context, the concept of wellbeing is often discussed through terms like “physical and mental health” (身心健康) and “balance of body, mind, and spirit” (身心灵平衡)), which resonate with traditional philosophies such as Daoism and Confucianism. Participants' engagement with surfing often reflected these values, as they described experiences of inner harmony, emotional release, and reconnection with nature as key aspects of their personal wellbeing. As observed by Zanella (2019), Daoist principles such as qi, yin-yang balance, and mindful movement were often invoked by Chinese practitioners to interpret surfing as a meditative and spiritual pursuit, reinforcing its role as a practice that cultivates both inner harmony and holistic wellbeing.

Surfing created a unique social environment where like-minded women supported one another in discovering new ways to balance their lives. Anna mentioned: “I had never even heard of singing bowls before coming here; my surf sisters showed me how powerful it is to slow down and listen to yourself.” This sense of personal transformation is not just about the physical act of surfing but about the emotional growth and mental clarity it fosters. Women reported a profound sense of pride in mastering new skills and overcoming obstacles which were previously seen as intimidating or out of their reach. The continual progression in the sport helped them reframe their sense of self-worth, reinforcing the idea that they could achieve more than they initially believedand find their personal balance and wellbeing.

The surfing community in Riyue Bay was described by participants as inclusive and as providing a sense of belonging, particularly for women (The Economist, 2021; Wilde, 2021). It was described as as a space where surfers can express themselves freely, away from societal judgments. For the participants in this study, the culture in Riyue Bay felt welcoming, fostered a sense of companionship and solidarity among surfers. This supportive environment not only encouraged personal growth but also fostered the development of deep, meaningful relationships. Sophie shared: “The community here is like family. We share our victories and struggles, and there is a genuine connection built on mutual respect for surfing.” This sense of community was particularly empowering for women, offering them the opportunity to experience freedom and equality in a traditionally male-dominated sport. Kate remarked: “Surfing here has allowed me to feel like an equal among surfers, regardless of gender. It's a space where I can feel empowered to be myself.”

However, the rapid commercialization of surfing in the region introduced complexities into this once close-knit community. The increase in surf shops, bars, and other commercial ventures led to concerns that profit-driven motives are overshadowing the original surfing culture in Riyue Bay. Ten participants noted a shift in the atmosphere from one of pure passion for surfing to a more transactional environment. Anna reflected:

Booth's (2001) discussion of gender, identity, and representation in surfing culture helps interpret how women surfers in Hainan negotiate femininity, legitimacy, and visibility. In Riyue Bay, these negotiations unfold alongside an increasingly commercialized surf scene, in which surf schools, branding, and social media imagery can reproduce and market particular representations of “the surfer.”This commercialization has raised fears among long-time surfers that the culture, which was once deeply rooted in the love of the ocean and surfing, is being eroded by high-volume tourism and quick commercial gains. Mia expressed this concern:

A growing concern among long-term surfers in Riyue Bay was the practice of some tourists setting off fireworks on the beach at night. These activities not only disrupt the tranquility of the coastal environment but also leave behind significant amounts of litter from fireworks (which are often not collected afterwards).

Long-term surfers living in Riyue Bay, known locally as làngrén (浪人) or “ronin,” were drawn to the bay by its quality waves and were united by a shared passion for surfing rather than profit (Wengel et al., 2023). However, for many of these surfers, the post-COVID-19 transformation of Hainan's surf scene marked a departure from the authentic ideals and roots of surfing. They perceive the influx of commercial surf schools, influencer-driven tourism, and Olympic-focused development as diluting the spiritual and self-expressive ethos that originally defined surfing in the area. This perceived loss of authenticity prompted surfers to relocate to less developed areas, such as Shimei Bay, in search of quieter waves and a return to the soulful surfing culture they once found in Riyue Bay.

While surfing remains a central focus in the community, the growing presence of non-surfers seeking quick experiences has introduced a layer of superficial engagement with the sport, which is unsettling to those who view surfing as a lifestyle and a culture rather than a commodity. Following the suggestions of Porter and Usher (2019), it is essential to understand the motivations, behaviors, and preferences of surfers, as those who just come as “surf tourists” and are keen to have a good photo for their social media profile, in order to develop sustainable and locally beneficial governance strategies for surf tourism. The participants' concerns about business-driven surf practices, “photo-centric” tourists, and the growing commercialization of Riyue Bay reflect broader tensions explored in tourism sociology, particularly around the ways authenticity is negotiated and reshaped in increasingly commercialized spaces. Authenticity is not a fixed attribute but a socially constructed and contested concept, shaped by the perspectives of different stakeholders (including tourists, governments, and local actors) and continuously transformed through commodification and other societal changes (Cohen, 1988; Cole, 2007). The tourist gaze is increasingly shaped by visual culture and social media, prompting a shift from experiential depth to performative consumption (Coşkun, 2021; Urry and Larsen, 2011). In rapidly emerging destinations like Hainan, commercialization enables broader access, especially for women, yet simultaneously introduces gendered contradictions. Women surfers must navigate a landscape where their presence is both celebrated and commodified, often judged through aesthetics and visibility rather than skill or commitment. This tension reflects a broader pattern observed in leisure and tourism contexts, where neoliberal market dynamics reshape authenticity and participation (Zhang et al., 2021).

Despite these challenges, a strong sense of community remained among surfers who remain dedicated to the sport. Seven participants continued to value the companionship within the group, and the shared experience of surfing provides an emotional connection that transcends commercial concerns. Chloe said:

These bonds among surfers help sustain the surfing community's cultural integrity, even as external pressures challenge its authenticity. The tension between commercialization and cultural preservation is an ongoing issue not only in Riyue Bay but also in Haiting Bay. However, the core values of the community, support, shared passion, and personal connection continue to offer a space for authentic surfing experiences. Several participants expressed hope that these values can be protected amidst growing commercial interests, ensuring that the surfing culture in Riyue Bay remains true to its roots. In addition to their emphasis on community and its cultural integrity, local surfers in Riyue Bay were deeply committed to environmental stewardship. Ten participants described the ocean not only as a space for recreation but as a living environment they feel responsible for protecting. Long-term residents and dedicated surfers often engaged in informal beach clean-ups and actively discouraged harmful tourist behaviors that threaten the bay's ecological balance. As one surfer noted, “For us, the sea gives so much, it's only natural we take care of it. We pick up trash after surfing, talk to tourists about respecting the beach, and try to set an example” (Interview with Emily). This emerging culture of environmental awareness was also reflected in previous studies (Larson et al., 2018; Wengel et al., 2023), which noted that while still in its early stages, efforts toward sustainable marine protection are growing in Riyue Bay.

Nine participants voiced concerns about environmental degradation, particularly in relation to fireworks and the impacts of high-volume tourism. Their ecological awareness appeared to emerge through a combination of influences, including exposure to environmental messaging in local surf spaces (such as cafes, accommodations, and certain surf clubs), interactions with international surfers, and active participation in community-led beach clean-ups regularly held in Riyue Bay. Five participants reported involvement in such initiatives, suggesting that ecological consciousness in this context is cultivated through social interaction and shared responsibility rather than being an inherent feature of surfing culture. Nevertheless, rather than treating pro-environmental behavior as inherent to surfing culture, further research is needed to better understand the origins and depth of these environmental values in Hainan.

What was evident was that some surfing enthusiasts, local surf schools, and residents had taken an active role in environmental preservation through clean-up initiatives, eco-volunteering, and the establishment of environmentally conscious businesses, such as zinc sunscreen created by one female surfer (Wengel et al., 2023). Furthermore, although local regulations prohibit setting off fireworks between 10 PM and 8 AM in Riyue Bay (Government, 2024), we observed widespread and largely unregulated use of fireworks in the evening, often sold and set off directly from the beach. This uncontrolled activity resulted in significant noise pollution, disturbed residents, and posed ecological risks to the coastal environment, raising serious concerns among both locals and “Ronin” surfers. This sense of environmental responsibility among the surfing community stood in sharp contrast to the behavior of short-term visitors, whose disregard for the natural setting, such as leaving behind fireworks debris and plastic waste, has become a source of frustration. For many long-time surfers, protecting Riyue Bay is not just about preserving the quality of the waves, but about honoring and safeguarding the spiritual and ecological heart of their shared space.

Surfing in Hainan provided a profoundly immersive experience that engaged all the senses, enabling participants to form a unique and personal connection with the natural environment. For six surfers, the sensory experiences of the ocean were not merely peripheral to the sport but central to their emotional and mental wellbeing. The vivid imagery of the ocean, the rhythm of the waves, the salty breeze, and the tactile sensations of water and sand contributed to an emotional landscape that is both soothing and exhilarating. Emily shared: “The moment I caught a wave, it felt like I was one with the sea... The sound of the waves and the feel of the water against my skin made me feel alive.” The deep connection to nature through these sensory experiences was described as transformative, offering surfers a sense of unity with the ocean.

These embodied and emotional experiences resonated with sociological phenomenology and recent research on sensory engagements in nature-based activities, where participants describe a heightened attunement to the environment and a sense of unity with the elements (Jackman et al., 2023; Kou et al., 2025). Much like runners who feel “part of the rain” or emotionally restored by rural soundscapes (Jackman et al., 2023), female surfers in this study described ocean immersion as emotionally grounding, aesthetically powerful, and central to their sense of self. This aligns with (Merleau-Ponty 2012) notion of body-environment continuity, where the sensory world is not external but co-constitutive of subjective experience.

For participants, the ocean served as more than just a setting for the sport; it is a source of emotional healing. The sounds of the waves, the tactile sensation of the water, and the sea's constant motion act as a therapeutic force, helping to quiet the mind and restore emotional balance. Chloe reflected:

These moments of connection with the ocean often offered relief from the pressures of everyday life, with the sea providing a sanctuary for self-reflection and emotional processing. Six participants described initially fearing the vastness and unpredictability of the ocean. Through repeated sensory encounters (for example, feeling the pull of the tide, hearing the crash of waves become familiar, and watching the horizon shift at dawn), they gradually developed a sense of trust and awe, transforming fear into respect and a deep emotional connection.

The findings were consistent with emerging research on surf therapy, highlighting the integral role of sensory experiences in promoting emotional wellbeing (Benninger et al., 2020). Surf therapy is a structured, ocean-based therapeutic intervention that uses surfing and the sensory experiences of the ocean environment to promote physical, psychological, and social wellbeing. Rooted in movement and nature-based practices, surf therapy engages participants through the act of surfing while fostering emotional regulation, mindfulness, confidence, and connection, particularly in communities where traditional mental health services may be limited or less accessible (Gaspar de Matos et al., 2017; Marshall et al., 2025, 2019). Female surfers described the ways the tactile sensations of water, the rhythmic sound of waves, the shifting light on the ocean surface, and the dynamic movement of their bodies on the board contributed to a sense of grounding, calm, and presence. These sensory elements were not merely incidental to the experience but acted as powerful therapeutic tools, facilitating emotional regulation, self-reflection, and relief from everyday stressors. For some participants, especially those who initially feared the ocean, repeated sensory exposure helped transform anxiety into trust and reverence, illustrating the ocean's capacity to support psychological healing. These accounts suggested that surfing, through its immersive sensory nature, holds significant therapeutic potential, particularly in contexts where traditional talk-based interventions may be less effective or accessible. This was consistent with Buckley and Cooper (2025) findings, which show that women surfers perceive surfing as a powerful source of mental resilience, driven by nature, challenge, and social support, reinforcing the value of both passive and active nature-based interventions in large-scale mental healthcare.

The waves themselves also served as a metaphor for personal emotional states. For some, the waves reflected moments of challenge and triumph, while others mirrored their internal emotional struggles or moments of clarity. The physical act of surfing served as an outlet for emotional expression, enabling surfers to channel their feelings through movement. Lily described: “When I ride a wave, it feels like I am riding my emotions. The wave mirrors how I am feeling inside, and catching it feels like I've managed to navigate my emotions for that moment.” This deep emotional connection to the ocean and the waves often led to moments of personal joy and accomplishment, particularly when overcoming challenges. For female surfers, the experience of riding a wave was not just about mastering the sport but also about the emotional highs that come from personal growth and achievement. The waves represent more than just physical obstacles to overcome; they symbolize the ongoing process of emotional healing, self-discovery, and personal transformation. As Jessica commented, “Every wave carries something away from me: fear, sadness, doubt. Surfing has become the only place where I can breathe fully and feel like I'm slowly becoming myself again.” These moments of success on the waves provided a sense of emotional release, as well as pride in the connection to nature and the mastery of oneself.

While participants emphasized surfing's emotional and sensory benefits, it is important to acknowledge that these experiences do not exist in a social vacuum. Discourses of mindfulness, emotional healing, and self-fulfillment increasingly circulate through consumer culture and are often embedded in global wellness trends, particularly among upwardly mobile, urban, middle-class women. As such, the transformative narratives shared by participants may simultaneously reflect genuine personal shifts and broader neoliberal ideals of self-optimisation through lifestyle consumption and nature-based leisure. As Binkley (2014) argues, wellness culture is often aligned with neoliberalism's emphasis on individual responsibility, self-regulation, and the pursuit of happiness through consumption. Similarly, (Cederström and Spicer 2015) highlight the ways health and wellness practices have become moralized forms of labor in the “wellness syndrome,” where emotional wellbeing is commodified and marketed as a lifestyle imperative. This study provides evidence that the sensory and emotional experiences in the water ultimately allow participants to find clarity, calm, and joy, creating a lasting sense of fulfillment that extends far beyond surfing as a sport or leisure practice. In future research, a new materialist reading of surfing (Thorpe et al., 2020) could examine the ways the ocean, tides, surfboards, and even bodily sensations co-constitute the experience, not just how surfers think or feel about surfing, but also the ways they are shaped by and become entwined with these material elements.

Surfing in Riyue Bay, while a rewarding and transformative experience, was not without its challenges. These difficulties are multifaceted, ranging from safety concerns associated with unregulated surf instruction to the pressures faced by female surfers due to societal and familial expectations. One of the most significant challenges participants highlighted was the safety issue, particularly as surfing had become more commercialized. The rise of unregulated surfing lessons, often led by inexperienced instructors, raised serious concerns about the risks involved. Lucy said: “The cheap, unregulated surfing lessons have led to a lot of safety issues. It's a real concern that some instructors can't even swim properly.” Beyond concerns about instructional quality and safety, several participants also alluded to more troubling issues, namely instances of inappropriate behavior and sexual harassment. Although concrete media reports are scarce, online testimonies related to harassment have been published, for example, on Weibo (2025). These accounts described discomfort and, in some cases, sexual harassment, particularly by so-called “board-pushing coaches” who solicit clients directly on the beach. However, such incidents were not raised by participants in our interviews, suggesting either different personal experiences or a reluctance to disclose such issues in the research setting. Although none of the participants described experiences of harassment, sexism or exclusion, this absence itself may be significant. It may reflect the supportive environment of Riyue Bay, the specific demographic profile of the women interviewed, or the ways in which gendered conflicts are normalized or left unspoken. Situating this silence alongside existing studies of gender relations in surfing (e.g., Laderman, 2014; Olive et al., 2018; Waitt, 2007) highlights how unarticulated experiences can be as revealing as explicit accounts of lived experiences, offering insight into the social dynamics and power relations of emerging surf cultures in China.

The commercialization of surfing, while benefiting the local economy, also contributed to a decline in safety standards, as low-cost surf lessons are often prioritized over the quality of instruction. The lack of formal oversight has contributed to a growing sense of unease among both novice and experienced female surfers. While Riyue Bay was still viewed as a space of transformation and empowerment, these issues highlighted a parallel need for better regulation, the promotion of certified and accountable instructors, and the creation of safer, more inclusive surfing environments. Addressing these issues is essential not only for improving the quality of instruction but also for protecting the emotional and physical wellbeing of all participants, especially women.

Other challenges mentioned by participants related to societal pressures that add another layer of complexity to their surfing journeys. Family expectations, especially for women, often require them to conform to traditional roles, such as settling down, getting married, and having children. For eight participants, surfing has become a means of rebelling against these prescribed roles, offering a form of personal freedom and self-expression. Chloe shared:

In this context, surfing is not just a sport but a means of asserting independence and challenging the conventional norms placed upon women. The challenges faced by female surfers in Hainan, who experience both exclusion and resistance in their attempts to assert their place within the sport, reflect broader dynamics explored by Brennan (2016), who critiqued the gendered norms of surfing culture and called for more inclusive, equitable participation. Similarly, Heywood (2008) highlighted the means by which global commercial forces shape women's experiences in surfing, creating a tension between empowerment and commodification, a dynamic increasingly visible in Hainan's rapidly developing surf tourism landscape.

In terms of adaptation, surfers developed various strategies to navigate both physical and safety challenges. One key adaptation was learning to adjust surfing practices to match one's physical capabilities, especially in response to dangerous or overwhelming conditions. For instance, six participants described how they modified their approach to surfing by focusing on waves that align with their skill levels. For example, Ella said, “I now know to only surf waves that suit my level, especially after a few exhausting and unsafe experiences with bigger waves.” This adaptation reflected the importance of self-awareness in the sport as surfers learn to assess their capabilities and make decisions that prioritize both their safety and enjoyment. While participants did not discuss the development of their skills, such as mastering surfing techniques or taking bodily risks, this absence is a meaningful finding. In the interviews, women most often discussed surfing in relation to self-expression, emotional wellbeing, and lifestyle transformation. References to skill progression, competition, or formal hierarchies were less prominent in these accounts, although this may also reflect the conversational focus of the interviews. This emphasis may connect to broader cultural narratives in China, where emerging surf identities, particularly for women, foreground empowerment and freedom. Overall, participants described navigating commercialization-related safety concerns and societal expectations, while also reporting adaptive strategies and resilience. The rising concerns over commercialization, safety, and societal expectations underscore the need for ongoing support for female surfers and the preservation of the authentic surfing culture. As the popularity of surfing continues to grow, it is crucial to foster a supportive environment that balances the commercial benefits of surfing tourism with the need to maintain high safety standards and protect the core values of the sport. By supporting women in the sport, encouraging responsible surf instruction, and preserving the cultural atmosphere of Riyue Bay, the surfing community can continue to thrive while remaining true to its roots.