The present study was undertaken in two districts of the Sundarbans delta viz., North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas located in the southern part of West Bengal, India. Within these districts, the Hasnabad block (North 24 Parganas) and Basanti block (South 24 Parganas) were purposively selected to represent contrasting agro-ecological conditions. The study location is depicted in Figure 1. According to the latest district statistics, North 24 Parganas has an estimated population of approximately 1.0 billion, while South 24 Parganas hosts about 0.8 billion inhabitants.

The Hasnabad block is characterized by freshwater availability predominantly during the monsoon season, sourced from the Ichamati River and its distributaries. In the dry season, the area experiences brackish water intrusion due to tidal backflow from the Bay of Bengal. Local farmers typically follow triple-cropping sequences, such as rice-mustard-jute, and rice-vegetables-jute. Freshwater availability in Basanti is limited to the rainy season (June–October), while tidal inflow during the dry season renders irrigation water saline. Farmers here generally adopt double-cropping systems including rice-rice, rice-vegetables, and rice-pulses. The agro-hydrological contrasts between the two sites were a decisive factor in their selection, as they enabled the study to capture farming practices and constraints across diverse salinity and water availability regimes within the delta.

The Basanti and Hasnabad areas, experience a tropical subtropical climate characterized by significant monsoonal rainfall and high humidity. The annual average rainfall in Basanti is around 1,650 mm, typical of the alluvial and deltaic plains of South 24 Parganas, with approximately 74% of this rainfall occurring during the monsoon season from June to September. During this period, temperatures generally range between 26 °C to 33 °C with high humidity levels. Hasnabad, situated in North 24 Parganas and adjacent to Basanti, receives a slightly higher average annual rainfall estimated between 1800 and 1900 mm. The major portion of rainfall also falls between June and September, with average monthly rainfall in August reaching about 435 mm. Temperatures in Hasnabad during the peak monsoon months usually range from 26 °C to 31 °C, accompanied by similarly high humidity.

A baseline household survey was implemented, covering a total of 400 farmers, with 200 respondents surveyed in each of the two study blocks. The selection employed a stratified random sampling strategy, wherein villages within each block were first identified to reflect key agro-ecological conditions, and households engaged in paddy-based cropping systems were then randomly sampled from updated farmer lists. A structured questionnaire, a Baseline Survey Questionnaire (attached as Supplementary material), formed the primary data collection tool. The survey instrument was carefully designed to capture a broad spectrum of socio-economic, biophysical, and farm management variables relevant to the study objectives. The structured questionnaire comprised seven major modules:

The questionnaire was designed to align with the research objectives, ensuring a systematic comparison of farming practices, resource access, and adaptive strategies across the two study blocks. This structure also served to generate a comprehensive baseline dataset to support future monitoring and evaluation of agricultural development interventions in the Sundarbans delta.

The survey was conducted through face-to-face interviews conducted in the local language by trained enumerators. a two-day training programme that covered the objectives of the research, a detailed review of questionnaire content, mock interview exercises, and ethical guidelines, including protocols for obtaining informed consent and ensuring respondent confidentiality was organized for enumerators. Data collection was conducted across one full cropping year to account for both kharif and rabi season production activities. Respondents were encouraged to refer to farm records to improve the accuracy of recall-based responses. Ethical considerations were strictly adhered to throughout the study. Participation was voluntary, informed consent was obtained verbally, and all responses were anonymized in compliance with institutional ethics protocols.

Upon completion of fieldwork, all questionnaires were systematically checked for completeness and logical consistency. Data entry was performed using a predefined coding framework. The data processing steps included two steps viz., identification and correction of missing, inconsistent, or outlier values (Cleaning) and transformation of categorical responses into numerical codes for analytical purposes (Coding). Subsequent descriptive statistical analyses including frequency distributions, means, and percentages; and graphical outputs (bar charts, pie diagrams, histograms) and tabulated summaries were generated using Microsoft Excel and SPSS software (Verma, 2012; George and Mallery, 2018). These analytical outputs were used to describe patterns in household structure, landholding distribution, crop management practices, productivity, and market participation in the two study blocks.

The socio-economic characteristics of farmers in Hasnabad and Basanti blocks show notable variations. In Hasnabad, the average age of farmers is 49.4 years, ranging from 23 to 79 years, with a standard deviation of 13.2, while in Basanti, the average age is lower at 42.2 years, ranging from 21 to 74 years, with a standard deviation of 11.9 (Table 1). Operational landholding averages 0.5 ha in Hasnabad (ranging from no land to 2.0 ha) and 0.4 ha in Basanti (0.1–2.4 ha) (Table 1). The percentage of males and females involved in the whole survey was 87.0 and 13% overall. A survey of 200 farmers each in the Hasnabad and Basanti blocks shows that male farmers dominate all age groups, especially in Hasnabad, where almost no women are involved in farming (Figure 2a). In Basanti, however, female participation is higher, particularly among younger farmers (up to 33% in the 20–30 age group), though it declines with age.

Overall, while men remain the majority in agriculture, there are signs of increasing involvement of women in farming among the younger generation, particularly in Basanti. The majority of farmers in Hasnabad and Basanti have low levels of education, with most completing only primary education or having no formal schooling. Very few farmers progress to upper secondary, diploma, or university entrance, indicating limited access to higher education in these regions. The primary occupation of respondents of both the blocks is farming, labour being secondary occupation (Figure 2b).

The average annual income of farmers in Hasnabad stood at ₹1,11,119, marginally lower than Basanti’s ₹1,12,343 (Table 4). Yet, Hasnabad offered better employment opportunities with 302 workdays as against 258 in Basanti. Field crops remained the dominant sector, involving 194 farmers in Hasnabad and 168 in Basanti, with higher returns observed in Hasnabad (₹33,515) compared to Basanti (₹18,754). Vegetable cultivation was another important contributor, where 24 farmers in Hasnabad earned an average of ₹29,292, while 42 farmers in Basanti managed ₹20,487. Orchard based income was exclusive to Hasnabad, averaging ₹35,000 annually. In contrast, livestock rearing played a more significant role in Basanti, engaging 108 farmers with average yearly earnings of ₹20,564, against 68 farmers in Hasnabad who earned ₹12,424.

Income from local services were considerably higher in Hasnabad (₹1,42,000) than in Basanti (₹80,000), whereas outside service opportunities were recorded only in Basanti with an average of ₹60,000. Men’s wage employment within the locality was substantial in both regions, involving 155 farmers in Hasnabad earning ₹57,000 on average and 161 farmers in Basanti with ₹52,377. Wage work outside the locality was more prevalent in Basanti, where 80 farmers earned an average of ₹62,621, compared to just 7 farmers in Hasnabad, though they reported a much higher return of ₹1,30,714. Women’s participation in wage work remained limited, with only 2 women in Hasnabad (₹25,000) and 8 in Basanti (₹18,571). Aquaculture held greater significance in Basanti, engaging 115 farmers with an average income of ₹19,882, compared to 104 farmers in Hasnabad earning ₹15,826. Business related income was higher in Hasnabad (₹74,789) than in Basanti (₹70,000). Additionally, other income sources were reported by 13 farmers in Hasnabad averaging ₹62,384, while only 2 farmers in Basanti reported higher earnings of ₹80,000 (Figure 3; Table 5).

The survey results highlight the key constraints faced by farmers in the Hasnabad and Basanti blocks in undertaking rabi crop cultivation. In Hasnabad, the foremost problem reported by the majority of respondents was the lack of irrigation facilities, with 194 farmers indicating that the absence of assured water supply during the rabi season severely hampers crop establishment and growth (Figure 12). The second most significant issue was soil salinity, cited by 185 respondents, which affects soil health, reduces germination, and limits the choice of crops suitable for cultivation. The third major constraint was the non-availability of quality seeds, reported by 90 farmers, reflecting a gap in timely seed supply and access to improved varieties.

In Basanti, the leading problem was again the lack of irrigation facilities, mentioned by 199 respondents, highlighting the critical dependence on water for successful rabi crop production (Figure 13). The second major constraint was the non-availability of quality seeds, reported by 191 farmers, which mirrors the challenge seen in Hasnabad, indicating systemic seed supply issues in the region. The third problem identified was poor marketing facilities, with 182 respondents expressing concerns over inadequate infrastructure and market access, leading to reduced profitability and discouraging farmers from investing in rabi crops.

Overall findings underscore that water scarcity, seed supply issues, and location specific constraints like salinity in Hasnabad and poor marketing in Basanti are the primary barriers to enhancing rabi crop production. Addressing these challenges through improved irrigation infrastructure, timely seed distribution, soil management interventions, and better market linkages could significantly boost productivity and farmer incomes in both blocks.

Farmers in Hasnabad are on average older at 49.4 years, compared to 42.2 years in Basanti. Age influences physical capacity, openness to innovation, and willingness to take risks. Hasnabad households are also larger, averaging 5.8 members versus 4.8 in Basanti, offering more on-farm labor but higher consumption demands. Although Hasnabad has a slightly higher average number of migrating men per household, migration is far more widespread in Basanti, where about one third of households have at least one member working away. This is linked to lower cropping intensity and fewer local job opportunities. Migration can also relate to diversification in cropping systems or shifts in labor availability influencing intensity. The result in current investigation is strongly supported by the findings of Liu et al. (2016) and Banerjee et al. (2023). Liu et al. (2016) examined migration’s impact on agricultural restructuring in Jiangxi Province, China, finding labor outflows push households toward less labor-intensive grain farming over capital-intensive options like livestock, mirroring age and labor shifts affecting cropping in Indian contexts. This supports how older farmers and migration reduce innovation and intensity, as households prioritize subsistence over diversification. Educational levels are low in both blocks, with most farmers having only primary schooling or none, underscoring the importance of practical, easy to understand training at the field level.

In both locations, most farmland is medium or low lying and prone to seasonal waterlogging, limiting crop options. Hasnabad faces a more serious salinity challenge, with 147.5 acres affected compared to 30.8 acres in Basanti. Managing salt stress is, therefore, a higher priority in Hasnabad. Introducing and scaling up stress-tolerant and hybrid high yielding varieties suited for saline and submerged conditions could help maintain production despite poor soil and water quality (Liu et al., 2016; Sackey et al., 2025). Sackey et al. (2025) advocate GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Study)-identified tolerant accessions for submerged saline fields, boosting yields 20%–30%.

Rice is the dominant crop in the kharif season in both areas, yet Hasnabad records much higher cropping intensity (243.4%) due to year round rotations such as rice–mustard–jute. In Basanti, cropping intensity is lower (138.9%), largely due to limited summer cultivation and heavy reliance on rice monocropping in the rabi season by over 25% of farmers. Cropping intensity measures total cropped area relative to net sown area across seasons, dropping when summer cultivation is limited by waterlogging or salinity, forcing reliance on single rice crops in kharif and minimal rabi options beyond rice monocropping (Saha D. et al., 2024). In saline, monocropped areas, diversified multiple cropping systems with salt-tolerant crops are essential to improve soil health, reduce risk, and increase returns (Ashilenje et al., 2022; Atta et al., 2023). For waterlogged plots, land shaping methods like farm pond, deep furrow and high ridge, and paddy–fish cultivation can improve drainage, reduce salinity, broaden income sources, and increase resilience (Burman et al., 2013; Velmurugan et al., 2015; Mandal et al., 2019).

A central aim of this research is to design an improved package of practices for potato cultivation in coastal saline soils, especially in the Sundarbans where land often remains fallow after kharif rice due to unsuitable soil conditions and water scarcity in dry season water. Transforming these idle lands through suitable technologies could add significant income (Velmurugan et al., 2015; Mandal et al., 2019; Sarangi et al., 2018; Sarangi et al., 2021). For farmers already cultivating vegetables in the second season, the provision of quality seeds of improved varieties, along with technical guidance, would raise productivity and profitability.

Basanti recorded a marginally higher average annual income, driven largely by livestock, aquaculture, and wage migration, as its proximity to Kolkata allows farmers to easily access daily wage opportunities. In contrast, Hasnabad demonstrated advantages in services, business, orchards, and better returns from field crops, coupled with longer employment days. These variations highlight distinct livelihood strategies, with Hasnabad’s diversified portfolio ensuring greater resilience, while Basanti’s reliance on wage work and livestock reflects dependence on external and supplementary income sources. Soil salinity, frequent extreme weather events have led to increased local reliance on mangrove based nonfarm livelihoods, emphasizing the need for conservation of natural ecosystem services (Sarkar et al., 2024).

Women are active contributors in both blocks but with different patterns. In Hasnabad, fewer households have women in farming, but those who do participate work for more days annually. In Basanti, more households involve women, yet the number of days worked per person is lower and concentrated in seasonal peak periods. Women in Hasnabad also invest more daily hours in poultry, livestock, and fisheries, reflecting more intensive roles. Expanding women-focused training and enterprise support can strengthen their contribution to household income (Ge et al., 2022; Bhattacharya et al., 2024; Saha A. et al., 2024; Begum et al., 2025).

Modern practices such as direct seeding, mulching, and seed treatment are more common in Basanti, while Hasnabad shows limited uptake beyond seed treatment. The use of climate resilient techniques, Integrated pest management, and precision input application remains low in both blocks. Fertilizer application is typically unbalanced, and micronutrients such as zinc and boron have not been used at all in rice farming. Introducing site-specific, soil test-based Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) including micro nutrients is essential to boost yields, safeguard soil fertility, and optimize resource use (Arif et al., 2012; Paramesh et al., 2023; Dwivedi et al., 2024).

The major limitations include lack of irrigation in the rabi season (both areas), severe soil salinity in Hasnabad, weak market infrastructure in Basanti, and poor seed availability in both blocks. Recommended measures include expanding irrigation capacity for dry season crops, promoting salt-tolerant high yielding varieties, introducing multiple cropping and crop diversification in saline areas, applying land shaping in waterlogged areas, distributing improved vegetable seeds, offering focused fisheries training, implementing soil test-based nutrient management with micronutrients, and upgrading Basanti’s market facilities to improve farmer returns (Mitran et al., 2014; Biswas et al., 2017b).

Interventions must align with the unique conditions of each block. In Hasnabad, priorities should include salinity control, irrigation development, and the promotion of climate resilient, water efficient practices. In Basanti, efforts should focus on strengthening irrigation, improving market connectivity, and moving from rice monocropping toward more diverse and higher value cropping systems. Across both blocks, coordinated policy support, enhanced extension services, better access to inputs, and inclusive programme for women’s empowerment will be crucial for achieving resilient and profitable farming systems (Mandal et al., 2023).