Globally, the demand for animal-sourced foods is projected to increase from 1.4 billion to 2.0 billion tons by 2030 if per capita consumption remains constant (Henchion et al., 2021). This demand is driven by population growth, urbanization, and rising incomes, especially in developing countries (Turk, 2016). On the other hand, the meat industry is facing challenges of the past century to meet the growing demand of animal products by providing high quality protein without exceeding the critical limit of natural resources (Fiorentini et al., 2020). In Southern Africa, chicken meat serves as an essential protein source, particularly in resource-poor communities (Tura et al., 2024). However, there is a scarcity of up-to-date sensory evaluation studies focusing on village and broiler chickens in informal markets, especially in Southern Africa. Historically, resource-poor communities have bred and reared poultry primarily for consumption to alleviate poverty and hunger. Chicken meat is regarded as the most consumed meat protein globally, due to the their high quality protein (Chen et al., 2023). The sensory characteristics of poultry products are important in defining meat quality and influence consumers preferences (Tura et al., 2024). Meat provides essential nutrients, including vitamins B6 and B12, zinc, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids (Singh et al., 2025). In addition.

Compared to other livestock, chicken meat is preferred due to its low fat and cholesterol content and high iron levels (Milićević et al., 2014). Poultry raised in backyard systems are often considered more nutritious, safer, and tastier than commercially produced chickens (Elkhoraibi et al., 2014). Consumers regard village chicken meat as a delicacy because of its distinctive taste and texture (Sow and Grongnet, 2010). However, the animal's diet is a critical factor influencing meat quality (Steczny and Kokoszynski, 2019). While genetics, nutrition, environment, and additives affect meat quality, genetics is often the most influential factor (Guan et al., 2013). Village and broiler chickens exhibit different growth rates, which may contribute to variations in meat properties (Wattanachant et al., 2004). Village and broiler chickens exhibit different growth rates, which may contribute to variations in meat properties (Alves et al., 2016; Mengesha, 2012).

Different chicken breeds-village chickens, broilers, and layers-have distinct sensory profiles (Sabri et al., 2019). Broilers are bred specifically for meat with rapid growth, but sensory evaluation studies, particularly in resource-poor settings, are limited and often outdated. Sensory evaluation involves human senses to measure and interpret food flavor and sensory characteristics (Steczny and Kokoszynski, 2019). However, flavor, as a sensory experience, is significantly influenced by the qualities of substances ingested, with odor and taste serving as the primary contributors to this phenomenon (Vasilaki et al., 2022). Furthermore, intrinsic (sensory qualities), extrinsic (pricing), and socio-economic elements are involved in evaluating consumer product acceptance (Fonseca et al., 2016). To determine the acceptance of meat or food products, consumers tend to consider various factors such as sensory characteristics, nutritional value and health implications (Muchenje et al., 2009).

Previous studies are often outdated or lack comprehensive consumer assessments. While the study explored the effects of age, gender, and location on sensory evaluations, further research is needed to understand how these demographic factors influence consumer preferences across different regions and cultures. Existing literature often lacks comparative analyses between indigenous breeds and commercial broilers regarding sensory attributes. More research is needed to establish specific sensory profiles for various chicken breeds. The impact of different rearing systems (e.g., backyard vs. commercial) on meat quality and sensory characteristics is under-researched. Understanding how these practices affect consumer perceptions could inform better farming methods. There is a need to investigate the specific flavor and aroma compounds that contribute to the sensory profiles of village vs. broiler chickens, as these aspects significantly influence consumer acceptance. Research is needed on consumer knowledge and perceptions regarding the nutritional and sensory benefits of village chickens compared to broilers, which could lead to enhanced market strategies. Insights into how sensory attributes affect marketability and consumer choice in low-income settings are limited. Understanding these dynamics could help improve livelihoods in resource-poor communities. The effect of consumer location, age, and gender on sensory assessment of different chicken breeds (village non-descriptive breed, Potchefstroom Koekoek, and broiler chickens) is underexplored. The study aims to provide empirical evidence regarding whether village chickens can compete with broiler chickens in the mainstream market based on consumer sensory perceptions.

Sensory preferences shape food choices, directly influencing consumption patterns that underpin food security and sustainable livelihoods, especially in resource-poor settings like rural South Africa. These links operate through consumer acceptance of local foods, which boosts dietary diversity, reduces waste, and supports income from agriculture such as village poultry production. Sensory appeal drives food availability and utilization by promoting acceptance of nutrient-dense local products. In biofortification programs, favorable sensory profiles (e.g., taste, texture) increase adoption of fortified crops or breeds like village chickens, enhancing micronutrient intake and stability for vulnerable households. Poor sensory match leads to rejection, exacerbating insecurity; for instance, low-income consumers prioritize familiar flavors in chicken meat, linking preferences to accessibility. Village chickens exemplify the nexus: sensory factors like tenderness and taste vary by breed, age, and location, determining uptake in food-insecure communities. Positive preferences enable livelihoods through sales and home consumption, while mismatches increase waste or substitution with costlier options. Preferences guide market viability for smallholder products, fostering economic resilience. High consumer liking for indigenous poultry supports women's income generation via sales, integrating into mixed farming for risk diversification and nutrition. Sensory-driven breeding aligns breeds (e.g., Potchefstroom Koekoek) with local tastes, scaling production in South Africa and promoting sustainability over imports.

Assessing the sensory evaluation of village and broiler chickens according to breed, sex, and age will benefit the informal market by enlightening consumer preferences. This will subsequently reveal the narratives involving the most favored growing and mature chickens concerning toughness attributable to age. Consequently, a recommendation on the optimal slaughter weight and age of chickens raised in a backyard production system can be made. To produce village chickens with maximum consumer's appeal, farmers need to understand the importance of age and sex of the chicken. Research indicated that sex, breed, and age influenced the body weight and internal organ weight of both village and broiler chickens. The impact of these elements must be assessed on the meat through sensory evaluation measurements. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of location, age, and sex of consumers on the sensory attributes of chickens in resource poor households. The study hypothesized that consumer-related factors, including location, age, and gender, significantly affect the sensory attributes (taste, tenderness, juiciness, and overall acceptability) of village and broiler chicken meat.

All data were analyzed using SAS 9.4 (2023). General Linear Model was used to analyze the effect of breed, sex and age to sensory evaluation characteristics in the study. Significant differences in mean values were determined by the Student Newman Keuls test (p < 0.05) procedure of the statistical analysis system (Sirri et al., 2010). The pearson's coefficients of correlation were used to estimate the correlation between location, gender, age with taste and tenderness of chickens.

The relationship of the location, gender and age of the consumers overall acceptability of treatments was measured.

The following linear model was used:

Where: Y is the response variable (overall acceptability);

β0, β1, β2 regression coefficients;

D is location, age and gender;

E is the residual error.

This study provides a sensory evaluation of both growing and mature village and broiler chickens raised in a backyard production system. Sensory evaluation is a characteristic of meat quality influenced by genotype, sex, diet, rearing system, and age (Haraf, 2014). The study comprised of equal number of females and males to avoid biasness in the results. The findings of the study indicate that most of the consumers were over 25 years with a small portion of individuals over the age of 45 years. The enhanced palatability of meat from chicken breeds such as village chickens, as opposed to broilers, has been extensively documented. A sensory evaluation comparing breeds in Japan found that village chickens were more palatable than broilers (Kiyohara et al., 2011). Literature indicates that consumers are willing to pay higher prices for slow-growing, high-quality local chickens due to their well-known health benefits and superior meat flavor (Xu and Yin, 2024; Tenza et al., 2024).

In the current study, consumer ratings of chicken meat varied by breed, age, and sex were relatively consistent. Moreover, the various breeds in the present study received comparable scores in sensory evaluation characteristics. It was evident that village chicken vendors favored village chickens over broilers (Tenza et al., 2024), yet consumers in the study ranked and preferred both equally. This may indicate that consumers can equally prefer village and broiler chickens, particularly if they compete in the mainstream market. The study indicates that there is no distinction between village and broiler chicken meat, as the majority of sensory attributes received similar scores.

Consumers consider various factors, including appearance, taste, aroma, and texture, when evaluating high-quality, safe meat with natural taste and flavor (Aymerich et al., 2008). However, a combination of cooking parameters, such as time and temperature, have been tested to improve the overall appearance of meat analogs as they can impact the final visual appearance of the cooked product (Fiorentini et al., 2020). The study evaluated taste, juiciness, dryness, texture, tenderness, aroma, and overall acceptability. No significant differences were observed in the color scores recorded by consumers for chicken meat based on age and sex variations. Selam and Kelay (2013) discovered variations in meat color among different chicken breeds attributable to the age at slaughter, which influences the levels of myoglobin and myoglobinin in muscle tissue. The color of meat was affected by location, gender, and age, with a significant interaction observed between gender and age, as well as between location and age. The color of meat is considered a significant factor that influences consumer purchasing decisions (Adam et al., 2010). Surprisingly, increasing hedonic scores for color did not correlate with increasing overall acceptance scores. This is in line with the study of Sharima-Abdullah et al. (2018) who indicated that the hedonic color score was not correlated with overall acceptability.

According to Xiao et al. (2019) consumers preferences are not driven by the flavor quality rather than the quantity of chicken meat which is the combination of taste and aroma and coking plays a major role. Flavor quality of chicken meat is depended on various factors including and not limited to age, breed and sex (Xu and Yin, 2024). The sensory evaluation of village chickens and broilers typically reveals that, post-cooking, village chickens possess a firmer texture, reduced fat content, and enhanced flavor compared to broilers (Wattanachant et al., 2004). This complements the research conducted by Hoffman et al. (2003), which demonstrated that breed did not significantly influence sensory evaluation. Conversely, the research conducted by Van Ba et al. (2013) revealed that breeds could influence sensory evaluation. On the other hand, breed influenced juiciness (Rodrigues and Teixeira, 2014) found that breed had no effect on juiciness. Whereas, aroma is the key element of sensory evaluation, as it presents the initial response of the first bite of meat, while the quantity of connective tissue is also crucial (Hoffman et al., 2007). A significant disparity in tenderness between female and male individuals of an unspecified breed was observed. Chumngoen et al. (2018) supported this, indicating that village chicken meat is less tender than that of broiler chickens.

The current study demonstrated that sex had a greater influence on sensory attributes than breed. The study conducted by Cameron et al. (1990) argued that sex exhibited less influence on sensory attributes compared to breeds. The taste was influenced by sex during the cooking process of both broiler and mature chicken meat. Various factors affect the sensory evaluation of meat, with availability and familiarity affecting the sensory evaluation scores (Sveinsdóttir et al., 2009). The sensory evaluation assesses the following attributes: texture, flavor, appearance, aroma, and other relevant characteristics to determine product acceptance and rejection (Ruiz-Capillas and Herrero, 2021). The primary sensory variables are taste, texture, color, and aroma, as they influence perceptions and acceptance of food.

The primary determinants of meat acceptability are tenderness, juiciness, texture, aroma, and flavor (Grunert et al., 2004). The meat of village chickens possesses a distinctive flavor and texture, making it a delicacy recognized by consumers. Village chickens are more expensive than boiler chickens (Ding et al., 1999). Village chicken exhibits a denser texture and enhanced flavor post-cooking in comparison to broilers. Sensory evaluation is advisable for assessing the acceptance of rival products in the marketplace (Beriain et al., 2009).

Age of a chicken has an effect on the flavor of the meat as an increased age is associated with increased flavor intensity (Flores, 2023). Whereas, consumers prefer aged chickens due to the perception of heighted flavor and nutritional value (Li et al., 2022). An association existed among the age, location, and gender of consumers and the overall acceptability of both growers and mature chicken meat. Kok et al. (2003) stated that demographics, including age, gender, and location, significantly influence sensory evaluation. The present study demonstrated that location affects consumers' perceptions of the sensory evaluation of chicken meat. Sañudo et al. (2007) found variations in the perceptions of sensory attributes among consumers from different countries. Comprehensive research on sensory perception and food preferences across genders and age demographics is crucial for developing a marketable food product associated with the physiological and psychological determinants of food choices (Miyagi, 2017).

The gender of consumers affected the sensory assessment of both growing and mature village and broiler chicken meat. This aligns with Xazela et al. (2011), who indicated that female consumers assigned higher ratings than male consumers for the overall acceptability of goat meat. While, Chaya et al. (2015) demonstrated that gender influences emotional reactions to food, contingent upon the specific products evaluated. A hormonal influence linked to gender is significantly associated with taste perceptions (Doty and Cameron, 2009). Consumers regard tenderness as the paramount factor influencing meat quality (Strydom et al., 2000). The findings of Fukunaga, Uematsu (Fukunaga et al., 2005) indicated a notable age-related decline in taste perception, particularly regarding recognition thresholds for the four primary flavors: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. The study's findings indicated that consumer age influenced taste and tenderness. However, Dyubele et al. (2010) demonstrated that consumer age did not significantly affect most sensory evaluations.

It is concluded that consumers can uses village chickens as an alternative despite the sex and age. In conclusion, there is a relationship between the location, age, and gender of consumers and the sensory evaluation parameters of chicken's meat. Village and broiler chicken meat were ranked with approximately the same sensory scores in most sensory characteristics. Consumers were able to differentiate between meat samples and were consensual in all sensory attributes. While broilers are the most consumed chicken product compared to village chickens, the study concludes that the consumers indicated that these breeds have less of the same sensory attributes. Consumers preferred both village and broilers chickens at the same hedonic scores for growing and mature in both females and males. Even though gender, age and location played a major role in the overall acceptability of meat. Location and gender influenced the acceptability of growers and mature, females and males, village and broiler chicken meat. The results obtained are vital for future research related to improving underutilized livestock for the benefit of individuals, primarily in resource-poor communities. Another important conclusion is that consumers respond to village chickens the same way they do to broiler chickens, therefore, the study recommends that village chickens can potentially compete with broiler chickens in the market. It is concluded that village chickens were similarly rated in sensory attributes to broilers as per evident of the current study.