The data in Figure 3 reports the variation of the national average annual rainfall in Morocco from 1981 to 2023, based on data from the Moroccan Climate Status Report (CSR). The results reveal considerable interannual variability in rainfall over the study period. The highest cumulative annual rainfall was recorded in 1996, exceeding 350 mm, followed by 2010 (>320 mm) and 2018 (>270 mm). In contrast, 2023 stands out as the driest year in at least eight decades, with an annual total of less than 100 mm and a rainfall deficit of approximately 48% compared to the national average. A particularly alarming trend is observed over the last six years (2019–2024), which represents the longest sequence of consecutive dry years ever recorded in the country. During this period, Morocco experienced an average rainfall deficit of about 35%, signaling an unprecedented and persistent drought condition. This prolonged deficit period marks a clear intensification of climate aridity and poses serious challenges to water resource management, agriculture, and ecosystem stability. Three major drought episodes were identified during the studied period, all characterized by annual rainfall values falling below the national average of 185 mm. The first spanned from 1983 to 1986, the second from 1992 to 1995, and the third, by far the most severe, occurred from 2019 to 2024, combining both intensity and duration of rainfall shortage.

Figure 4 presents the geospatial distribution of the Moroccan annual precipitation every five years between 1993 and 2023, based on the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). The daily precipitation data used in this analysis were derived from the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) dataset, with a spatial resolution of 4.8 km, and have been widely applied in drought and precipitation studies across North Africa and other semi-arid regions (Funk et al., 2015). Nevertheless, this approach has some limitations, particularly in highly irregular areas such as the Drâa Basin, as reported by Khettouch et al. (2023). The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated using the Google Earth Engine platform, allowing for a consistent evaluation of drought and wetness conditions over time and space. Data processing, spatial analysis, and generation of geospatial maps were performed using ArcGIS Pro software. The maps illustrate the spatial variability of drought and wetness conditions across Morocco, highlighting the evolution of climatic patterns over the past three decades. In 1993, our analysis indicated that most of Morocco was experiencing near-normal climatic conditions, a pattern consistent with observations reported in previous climatological studies (Amouch and Akhssas, 2023; Elair et al., 2023). However, some regions showed signs of slight hydrological anomalies. Generally, areas classified as moderately dry were mainly located in the southern parts of the country, particularly around Dakhla and parts of Laayoune. Simultaneously, small portions of southwestern and central Morocco exhibited moderately wet conditions. No areas were categorized as extremely dry or extremely wet, indicating relatively stable hydrological conditions across the country during this year. However, Morocco displayed a strong spatial contrast in hydrological conditions in 1998. The northern regions, including Tanger, Tetouan, and Al Hoceima, and parts of central Morocco such as the Saïs region, experienced significant drought, with extensive zones categorized from moderately dry to extremely dry. In contrast, the southern regions (Laayoune, Guelmim, and Dakhla) experienced much wetter conditions, ranging from moderately wet to very wet, indicating a highly uneven distribution of rainfall across the country in that year. In 2003, Morocco predominantly experienced near-normal precipitation conditions across most regions. The Oriental and Northern zones, particularly around Nador, Al Hoceima, and Oujda, displayed moderately wet conditions. Overall, this year reflected a relative climatic balance, without extreme drought or excessive wetness dominating the national landscape. The season 2008–2009 stands out as one of the wettest seasons recorded during the study period, with a remarkable spatial distribution of precipitation across Morocco. In particular, the Oriental regions, notably around Oujda and Berkane, and the western zones encompassing Bouarfa and Errachidia recorded precipitation levels ranging between moderately wet and extremely wet classes. The year 2013 was characterized by heterogeneous climatic conditions across Morocco. The northern eastern regions, including the Bouarfa area, showed signs of moderate to severe drought. The southern zones around Guelmim and Laayoune fluctuated between near-normal and moderately dry conditions. Conversely, certain southern regions, especially around Dakhla, experienced moderately wet to very wet conditions. This spatial divergence highlights the increasing climatic variability observed in the early 2010s.

The year 2018 represented another exceptionally wet season across Morocco, marking one of the most hydrologically favorable years within the study period. In this sense, extensive regions, particularly in the Northern and central parts of the country, experienced conditions ranging from moderately wet to extremely wet. Areas such as Dakhla, Tan Tan, and even parts of the interior regions exhibited notable precipitation surpluses. This widespread increase in rainfall during 2018 reflects favorable atmospheric circulation patterns, contributing to improved water availability and a temporary alleviation of drought stress across large parts of the country. By 2023, Morocco again faced widespread hydric stress, with large areas, especially in the northern and eastern regions (Saïs and Oriental regions), experiencing moderate to severe drought conditions. These patterns reflect the intensified impact of climate change, reinforcing the vulnerability of northern agricultural and urban centers to water scarcity.

The geospatial patterns of precipitation variability observed between 1993 and 2023 in Morocco reflect the profound impact of climate change on regional hydrology and drought dynamics. The increasing frequency and intensity of drought episodes, particularly across northern and central regions, align with broader projections of Mediterranean climate vulnerability, where reduced precipitation and enhanced variability are expected (Lazoglou et al., 2024). The persistence of hydric stress in key agricultural areas such as the Saïs and Oriental regions is particularly concerning, as these zones represent vital agricultural and economic hubs (Adiba et al., 2021b; Hamdani et al., 2021; Achli et al., 2025). Conversely, the intermittent wetter conditions recorded in the southern provinces like Laayoune and Dakhla illustrate the shifting spatial distribution of rainfall patterns, likely influenced by changes in atmospheric circulation and the northward displacement of subtropical systems (Ouaraini et al., 2025). The pronounced wet seasons, notably in 2008–2009 and 2018, although beneficial for temporary water recharge, also underscore the heightened variability that complicates long-term resource planning (Ouhakki et al., 2024). Overall, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) analysis highlights not only a general trend toward increased drought severity but also an amplification of precipitation extremes, thereby exacerbating Morocco’s water management challenges and underscoring the urgent need for adaptive strategies in agriculture and urban planning (El Kenawy, 2024).

Figure 5 illustrates the trend of the national average annual temperature in Morocco over the period from 1981 to 2023. Indeed, the data demonstrate a clear and accelerating increase in the national average annual temperature, consistent with global patterns of climate change. During the period from 1981 to 1987, the national average temperature remained relatively stable, exhibiting modest year-to-year variability without a clear upward or downward trend. Throughout this early period, the recorded temperatures were generally lower than the overall mean temperature for the studied timeframe, which was 18.75 °C. A similar pattern was observed between 1990 and 1994, with temperatures fluctuating slightly but remaining close to or below the long-term average before the onset of more pronounced warming in subsequent years. Starting from the early 2000s, a more pronounced and sustained increase in temperature has been observed. Notably, the last few years consistently surpass earlier averages, suggesting that warming is not only continuing but intensifying. Notably, the year 2023 stands out as a record year for the national average maximum temperature, registering a significant anomaly of +2.5 °C relative to the climatological normal calculated for the 1981–2010 period.

Increased temperature fluctuations in Morocco have had a significant impact on national agricultural production. Rising temperatures, combined with greater variability between seasons, have disrupted crop phenology, reduced yields, and heightened water demands for irrigation (Adiba et al., 2024a, 2024b; El Amine et al., 2025; Hamdani et al., 2024a, 2024b). In the same way, Bouras et al. (2019), Amiri et al. (2021), and Razouk et al. (2022) reported that crops such as cereals, olives, and citrus fruits that present the key components of Moroccan agriculture are particularly sensitive to extreme heat events and prolonged droughts, which have become more frequent in recent decades. These studies indicate that high-temperature episodes during critical growth stages, such as flowering and grain filling, severely impact crop productivity and quality. In the same way, Adiba et al. (2023, 2024c, 2024d), Hamdani et al. (2024a, 2024b), and Hakam et al. (2024) revealed the effect of the variation of the environmental factor on the quality of the other fruit trees, including pomegranate, plum, and agran. Furthermore, the increase in evapotranspiration rates, coupled with a reduction in effective precipitation, exacerbates soil moisture deficits, thereby intensifying the vulnerability of both rainfed and irrigated agricultural systems (Ousayd et al., 2024). In this context, the ongoing climatic changes necessitate urgent adaptation measures, including the adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties, improved irrigation efficiency, and better water resource management strategies to sustain agricultural livelihoods in Morocco (Adiba et al., 2021a; Hamdani et al., 2021; Boudad et al., 2024; Kertolli et al., 2024).

Water salinization is a crucial issue threatening Morocco’s water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid zones, where water scarcity is already acute. Both groundwater and surface water are affected, reducing their suitability for drinking and irrigation (Hssaisoune et al., 2020). While natural processes, such as evaporation and seawater along coastal zones, contribute to this problem, human activities, including the overexploitation of aquifers and unsustainable irrigation practices, significantly aggravate the situation (Alfarrah and Walraevens, 2018). Beyond soil salinity, coastal regions are increasingly vulnerable to saltwater intrusion, especially in aquifers along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, where the lowering of groundwater levels has facilitated the intrusion of saline water. For example, in the Laayoune-Sakia El Hamra coastal aquifer, overexploitation has triggered saltwater intrusion, with an average salinity level of 10.5%, confirming the increasing vulnerability of Morocco’s coastal groundwater resources (Errich et al., 2023). Recent studies have indicated that salinity levels in some coastal aquifers pose serious risks to agricultural productivity and the supply of drinking water (Ez-zaouy et al., 2022; Bouhout et al., 2024). This dual phenomenon of soil salinization and saltwater intrusion underscores the urgent need to adopt sustainable groundwater management practices and monitoring programs to mitigate the further degradation of Morocco’s water resources (Agbasi et al., 2025).

Groundwater salinization in the Haouz plain has been exacerbated by excessive pumping, which has forced a shift in exploitation from shallow to deeper aquifers from shallow to deeper aquifers characterized by higher salinity levels. This situation is further compounded by nitrate contamination, creating a dual threat to agricultural sustainability and human health (Sahraoui et al., 2025). Comparable issues have been reported in the Rheris watershed in southeastern Morocco, where brackish groundwater severely limits agricultural and household water supply. To address these constraints, recent research has highlighted photovoltaic-powered membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) systems as a sustainable technological approach for managing salinity in such regions (Ait Lahssaine et al., 2024). In addition, the coastal areas of Morocco face increasing salinity due to seawater intrusion. As a solution to this challenge, several studies based on hydrological and modeling approaches have indicated that reverse osmosis and nanofiltration can effectively reduce salinity levels in local groundwater, providing a promising path for securing potable water in these regions (Abbi et al., 2025).

Regarding public health, rising salinity in drinking water resources contributes to higher concentrations of total dissolved solids, which can pose health risks when combined with other pollutants. Recent studies have emphasized the urgent need to monitor groundwater and surface water salinity and protect vulnerable populations (Rakib et al., 2019; Shaikh and Birajdar, 2024). Similarly, advances in treatment technologies are being investigated. In the Rabat-Kenitra region, electrocoagulation has shown promising results for groundwater treatment, demonstrating efficiency in reducing nitrate and salinity simultaneously, while reverse osmosis plants are being optimized to address scaling issues in brackish-water desalination systems (Addich et al., 2025; Fatni et al., 2025).

In Morocco, the overexploitation of water resources has become a growing concern, particularly as the country faces the dual pressures of increasing demand for water and diminishing supplies due to both climate change and population growth (Benaabidate et al., 2021; Ouhakki et al., 2025). Overexploitation of water resources, particularly groundwater, has led to a significant drop in the water table, estimated on average at around 2 meters per year, particularly in regions dependent on irrigated agriculture (Hssaisoune et al., 2020; Ouhakki et al., 2024). This situation is exacerbated by the increasing demand for water for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, which often exceeds the natural replenishment rate of groundwater aquifers (Laonamsai et al., 2023). Moreover, Morocco has experienced substantial virtual water exports, which refers to the water embedded in agricultural and industrial products that are traded internationally (Boudhar and Boudhar, 2025). Although intensive cultivation practices, particularly for export-oriented crops like tomatoes in the Agadir region, have led to groundwater overexploitation and significant declines in dam levels, these issues persist even with the use of desalinated water (Molle and Sanchis-Ibor, 2019). The export of water-intensive crops such as fruit trees and cereals has led to an implicit export of virtual water, contributing to the overall depletion of national water resources (Sebri, 2017). While Morocco benefits economically from such exports, the practice has raised concerns about the sustainability of water use, as the exported water is not returned to the national hydrological system (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).

Studies show that the export of virtual water is exerting significant pressure on Morocco’s water balance, with agricultural products accounting for a large proportion of the national water footprint. This dynamic is part of the transformation of the agricultural sector, driven by a government vision aimed at modernizing and developing this strategic sector (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007; Boudhar et al., 2023). This phenomenon poses challenges for water resource management, as the country’s limited water supply is strained by the simultaneous pressures of consumption and export (Ait Kadi and Ziyad, 2018). Therefore, addressing both overexploitation and virtual water exports requires a comprehensive approach that balances economic development with sustainable water management practices, such as improving water-use efficiency, promoting water-saving technologies, and fostering policies that encourage the responsible use of water resources.

The implications of overexploitation and virtual water exports also extend to the realm of food security, as water resources critical for domestic agricultural production are redirected for export purposes, potentially undermining the country’s ability to produce sufficient food for its growing population (Hekmatnia et al., 2023). Thus, a strategic policy shift toward more efficient water use and a reconsideration of the environmental cost of virtual water exports could help mitigate the strain on Morocco’s water resources (Brandolini et al., 2021).

Water pollution in Morocco, whether in groundwater or surface water, is a major environmental concern with multiple consequences. Groundwater, which is essential for drinking water supply and irrigation, is particularly vulnerable. For example, a study in the Tadla region revealed significant nitrate contamination in groundwater, mainly due to the excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers and agro-industrial waste (El Halouani et al., 2017). Diffuse nitrate pollution is exacerbated by urban wastewater, endangering water quality and the health of rural populations, which depend directly on these resources (Laftouhia et al., 2003). In the Khouribga region, intensive phosphate mining has led to fluoride contamination of groundwater. A previous study revealed a high concentration of fluoride in well water, exceeding the standards recommended for human consumption. This poses health risks, particularly in cases of dental and bone fluorosis, affecting the quality of life of residents (Essebbahi et al., 2022). Surface waters are also not spared. The discharge of margins, the liquid residues from olive crushing, into watercourses such as the Oued Sebou causes an increase in biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), leading to a reduction in dissolved oxygen and the death of aquatic fauna. In addition, these margins form an impenetrable film on the surfaces of rivers, preventing the penetration of light and oxygen, which disrupts the ecological balance of aquatic ecosystems (Safaa et al., 2023). The Mediouna Landfill near Casablanca also illustrates the negative impact of human activity on water resources. The leachate produced by this landfill has contaminated the surrounding groundwater, making farmland unsuitable for cultivation and affecting the health of the local population (Fekri et al., 2006). Faced with these challenges, it is imperative to strengthen the measures to protect water resources. This includes establishing wastewater treatment systems, regulating the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and rigorously monitoring industrial activities. Preserving the quality of groundwater and surface water is essential to guaranteeing public health, food safety, and sustainable development in Morocco (Darwesh et al., 2020).

Morocco’s predominantly semi-arid to arid climate, characterized by irregular rainfall, recurrent droughts, and escalating water scarcity, necessitates robust water resource management strategies (Adiba et al., 2024c, 2024d; Ongoma et al., 2024). Among these strategies, the construction of an extensive network of dams forms the cornerstone of the country’s water management framework (Doost et al., 2024). With renewable water resources amounting to only 22,000 mm³annually and a growing population, dams are essential to securing a stable and reliable water supply (Rachid and Moussaoui, 2025).

The data on the progressive increase in dam capacity in Morocco from 1960 to 2020 reveal a significant upward trend, with dam capacity expanding from approximately 1,200 mm³ in 1960 to 20,000 mm³ in 2020 (Figure 6). Key milestones in capacity expansion are observed around 1980 and 2000, which coincide with the implementation of major national water policies and dam-building programs, such as the National Water Strategy. The consistent growth trend also reflects Morocco’s proactive response to mitigate the effects of climate change, particularly the increasing frequency and severity of droughts. These efforts highlight the role of dams in enhancing water storage and availability, contributing to food security and socio-economic development (MAPMDREF, 2024). Currently, Morocco operates over 152 large dams with a cumulative storage capacity of 19,000 mm³. The ongoing construction of 16 additional dams is projected to increase this capacity by 4,800 mm³, aligning with the national goal of operating 170 dams by 2030 (METLW, 2024). These dams are critical for ensuring water availability for domestic consumption, agricultural irrigation, and industrial use, especially in regions frequently affected by droughts (Hssaisoune et al., 2020).

Notable examples include the Al Massira Dam, with a capacity of 2,760 mm³, which supplies drinking water to urban centers such as Casablanca, Marrakech, and El Jadida. It also supports agricultural irrigation in the Doukkala plain (Bounif et al., 2023). Similarly, reservoirs like Bin El Ouidane, Al Massira, and Ahmed El Hansali ensure water availability for irrigating Morocco’s agriculturally significant Tadla and Doukkala plains, which are vital for cereal and horticultural production (Jamali and Namous, 2020; Ainou et al., 2024). Industrial activities also benefit, with the Oued El Makhazine Dam supporting manufacturing in Tangier (Benchbani et al., 2022).

Beyond water supply, Moroccan dams contribute to flood mitigation by regulating water flow and reducing flood risks for downstream communities, as demonstrated by the Mohammed V Dam in northeastern Morocco (Loudyi et al., 2022). They also facilitate groundwater recharge, mitigating aquifer over-extraction, which is a critical issue in drought-prone areas (Ben Salem et al., 2023). Additionally, hydroelectric dams account for approximately 12% of Morocco’s energy mix, underscoring their role in the transition to sustainable energy (Boulakhbar et al., 2020).

The agricultural importance of dams in Morocco is closely tied to their storage capacity and strategic location within key agricultural regions (Molle and Tanouti, 2017). Dams are predominantly constructed in areas with high agricultural activity to ensure adequate water availability for irrigation (Tatlhego and D’Odorico, 2022). In this sense, the Al Massira Dam, with a 2,600 mm³ storage capacity, plays a vital role in supporting the Doukkala plain, a major irrigated zone covering approximately 100,000 hectares (Bounif et al., 2023). This plain is a significant contributor to national agricultural production, characterized by the cultivation of strategic crops such as sugar beet, durum and soft wheat, maize, and fodder crops, which benefit from an extensive and well-managed irrigation network (Ouraich and Tyner, 2011). As surface water resources in this region are scarce, the Oued Oum Er-Rbia’s waters, stored in the Al Massira Dam, serve as the sole surface water source for irrigation in this area (ORMVAD, 2020). Similarly, the Bin El Ouidane Dam, with a capacity of 1,500 mm³, is situated to serve the Tadla Plain agricultural region, which includes the Beni Amir and Beni Moussa perimeters, covering a total area of 105,500 hectares [National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water (ONEE), 2022; Ouhakki et al., 2024]. The Tadla plain is renowned for its diverse crop production, including cereals, forage crops, citrus, and olives, all of which rely heavily on the dam’s regulated water supply (Nemmaoui et al., 2014).

In addition, the Idriss I Dam, located near Fes and with a capacity of 1,200 mm³, provides critical irrigation water to the Saïss plain, enabling the production of olives, cereals, and grapes in this high-value agricultural zone (Moumen et al., 2021). The Hassan II Dam, with a storage capacity of 400 million cubic meters, supports agricultural activities in the Tafilalet region, a historically arid area that relies heavily on date palm cultivation and vegetable farming (Chahboune et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the Mansour Eddahbi Dam in southern Morocco, with a capacity of 560 mm³, is vital for the irrigation of the Ouarzazate Basin, where over 20,000 hectares of agricultural land depend on its water (El Qorchi et al., 2023).

The location of these dams is carefully aligned with the agricultural demands of their respective basins, where irrigation accounts for more than 85% of total water usage (FAO, 2022). This strategic placement also mitigates water shortages in arid and semi-arid areas by storing water during the rainy season and releasing it during dry periods (Ragab and Hamdy, 2004). Additionally, their capacities are directly tied to their ability to sustain irrigation and agricultural productivity during prolonged droughts, ensuring the sustainability of Morocco’s agricultural sector, which is a significant contributor to the national economy and rural livelihoods (Gouahi et al., 2024).

Morocco’s extensive network of dams has been crucial in addressing water scarcity and supporting essential sectors such as agriculture, domestic water supply, and energy generation (Ait Kadi and Ziyad, 2018). However, the country faces significant challenges as climate change, population growth, and resource depletion place increasing pressure on these structures. One of the primary issues is the growing sedimentation in reservoirs, which reduces their storage capacity and effectiveness over time. Sedimentation is estimated to reduce the storage capacity of dams by 50 to 75 mm³ annually (METLW, 2024).

The impact of climate change, particularly shifting rainfall patterns, further exacerbates these challenges. Prolonged droughts have become more frequent, and as Morocco enters its seventh consecutive year of drought, its dams are only 28.47% full, with a total volume of 4800 mm³ as of 2024 (METLW, 2024). While this marks an improvement over 2023, when dams were at just 23.29% (3,800 mm³), the situation remains critical (El Khatri and El Hairech, 2014). Reduced filling rates, combined with aging infrastructure, have made it increasingly difficult to maintain a reliable water supply, particularly for agriculture, which is highly dependent on consistent irrigation (Pereira et al., 2023). Figure 7 shows the development of water inputs to dams in Morocco over a long period (1945–2024), with an alarming downward trend. Figure 7A, covering the period 1945–2021, highlights a high interannual variability of inputs, with several notable peaks in the 1960s, 1996, and 2010. However, this variability is marked by an overall downward trend, particularly from the 1980s onwards, reflecting a progressive scarcity of water resources mobilized by dams. This trend is shown in Figure 7B, which details the annual contributions from 2018 to 2024. After a relatively favorable 2018 (10.8 billion m³), inflows are declining almost continuously, reaching an all-time low in 2022 (2 billion m³). The years 2023 and 2024 remain below the levels required to meet the country’s water needs sustainably, confirming a situation of persistent water stress.

The dataset highlights the increasing impact of climate change and recurrent droughts on water resource availability, posing serious challenges for sustainable dam management, national water security, resilience of water-dependent ecosystems, and socio-economic activities. To address these challenges, Morocco is constructing 20 new large dams by 2030, adding 3,200 mm³ of storage capacity (MAPMDREF, 2024). Efforts are also being made to enhance water-use efficiency through modern irrigation systems and digital monitoring technologies for real-time data on water levels and consumption. Additionally, multi-purpose dam projects aim to integrate water storage, energy production, and ecological conservation (Attia and Nasr, 2024).

By combining dams with groundwater recharge systems and community-managed reservoirs, Morocco is adopting a more sustainable approach to water resource management, ensuring resilience against climate change impacts and water scarcity (Bahir et al., 2019).

Morocco faces growing water scarcity due to climate change, population growth, and limited natural water resources (Adiba et al., 2021a; Hamdani et al., 2021). To address this challenge, Morocco has adopted strategies such as water recycling, efficient irrigation systems, and desalination (Al-Addous et al., 2024). Desalination has become a cornerstone of Morocco’s water management framework, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where conventional water resources are insufficient (Zarkik and Ouhnini, 2022) (Table 2). By converting seawater and brackish water into freshwater, desalination offers a viable solution to meet the growing demand for drinking water, agricultural irrigation, and industrial use (Burn et al., 2015). This approach is embedded within Morocco’s National Water Plan, which emphasizes the integration of innovative technologies to mitigate water shortages and ensure long-term water security (Bachegour et al., 2023).

One of the most notable projects is the Agadir Desalination Plant, which began operations in 2021 (Aglagal et al., 2024). This plant, considered the largest desalination facility in Africa, has a daily production capacity of 275,000 m³ of water (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). The project serves dual purposes: supplying potable water to more than 500,000 people in the Souss-Massa region and providing irrigation water for 15,000 hectares of farmland (Bourziza et al., 2023). Additionally, the Safi Desalination Plant in the coastal Safi province serves as another critical project aimed at providing potable water to local communities (Aroussy et al., 2016b). While smaller in scale compared to other facilities, the Safi plant highlights Morocco’s comprehensive strategy to address water scarcity issues across diverse urban and rural regions (Aroussy et al., 2016a). Looking to the southern regions, the Dakhla Desalination Plant is a forward-looking initiative that is expected to be operational by 2025. With a planned capacity of 90,000 m³ per day, this facility will be powered by a 40 MW wind farm (MAPMDREF, 2024). The Dakhla plant represents a strategic investment in ensuring water security for the population and the agricultural sector in the southern provinces, while leveraging Morocco’s vast wind energy potential to reduce environmental impact (MAPMDREF, 2024).

However, despite these notable advancements, Morocco’s water management efforts are not without significant challenges that threaten the sustainability and effectiveness of these initiatives. In this sense, several researchers reported that one of the primary challenges of desalination is the high energy consumption required to desalinate seawater (Al-Karaghouli and Kazmerski, 2013). Seawater desalination is an energy-intensive process, particularly the Reverse Osmosis (RO) technology commonly used in Moroccan plants (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). Morocco is addressing this challenge by integrating renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, into desalination projects (Boulakhbar et al., 2020). For instance, the Agadir Desalination Plant is partially powered by solar and wind energy, which helps reduce energy costs and carbon emissions (Tanji and Boutaibi, 2023). On the other hand, the environmental impact and brine disposal are some of the challenges in Morocco (Azdem et al., 2024). The brine contains concentrated salt and chemicals, which can harm marine ecosystems if not properly managed (Omerspahic et al., 2022). Moreover, the high salinity of brine can impact local fisheries and biodiversity, creating a need for improved brine management strategies and innovative technologies to mitigate environmental harm (Sola et al., 2020). Although some desalination plants in Morocco, such as those in Agadir and Chtouka, have implemented systems to reduce the impact of brine discharge, this remains a major concern (Bourziza et al., 2023).

Approximately 80% of Morocco’s cultivated land relies on rain-fed agriculture, making it particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in precipitation and climate change impacts (Abdelmajid et al., 2021). In this sense, desalination has emerged as a critical solution to address Morocco’s water scarcity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where agriculture is heavily reliant on irrigation (Migliore, 2024). The integration of desalinated water into agricultural practices has provided a sustainable means to support the country’s food security and economic stability (Derouez and Ifa, 2024). Recent studies highlight the significant role desalination plays in meeting the irrigation demands of high-value crops such as citrus, olives, and greenhouse-grown vegetables in regions like Souss-Massa and the Dakhla Oases (Bourziza et al., 2023; Aglagal et al., 2024).

For instance, the Agadir Desalination Plant in Souss-Massa, with a dual-purpose design, supplies irrigation water to 15,000 hectares of farmland. This has notably improved water availability for horticultural production, particularly in areas where groundwater over-extraction and salinization have become critical issues (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). Similarly, the ongoing Dakhla Desalination Plant project is anticipated to boost agricultural productivity by providing 90,000 m³ of desalinated water daily, ensuring water availability for both irrigation and the region’s expanding agricultural exports (MAPMDREF, 2024).

The adoption of desalinated water for irrigation is particularly vital in combating groundwater over-extraction and salinization, issues that threaten the long-term viability of agriculture in semiarid and arid regions (Burn et al., 2015; Bachegour et al., 2023). As Morocco continues to expand its desalination infrastructure, several researchers have reported that the agricultural sector stands to benefit from increased water availability, enhanced crop productivity, and greater resilience against the impacts of climate change (Zarkik and Ouhnini, 2022).

Desalination represents a strategic pathway for Morocco to mitigate its intensifying water scarcity, driven by mounting pressures from urban, industrial, and agricultural demands (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). As part of the nation’s integrated water management strategy, desalination has been bolstered by the adoption of cutting-edge technologies and renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, which significantly reduce both operational costs and environmental impacts (Kettani and Bandelier, 2020). For instance, the Dakhla Desalination Plant exemplifies Morocco’s innovative approach by combining desalination with renewable energy, paving the way for sustainable water production in the resource-challenged southern provinces (MAPMDREF, 2024). Similarly, the Agadir Desalination Plant serves as a model of efficiency, simultaneously meeting potable water needs and providing irrigation water, thereby establishing a robust precedent for future projects (Bourziza et al., 2023).

Despite these advancements, the expansion of desalination in Morocco faces several pressing challenges. The high capital and operational costs of desalination plants remains a significant barrier, particularly in areas with limited energy infrastructure (Hafsi and Taky, 2023). Although the integration of renewable energy sources has helped mitigate some expenses, the energy-intensive nature of desalination continues to raise concerns regarding its long-term economic viability (Burn et al., 2015). Furthermore, the disposal of brine, a highly concentrated saline by-product, poses substantial environmental risks, including potential damage to marine ecosystems and biodiversity if not effectively managed (Bachegour et al., 2023).

In agriculture, desalinated water presents significant potential for irrigation; however, its use demands careful management to prevent soil salinization. If insufficiently treated, its mineral content can accumulate over time, undermining soil quality and crop productivity. To ensure sustainability, the integration of advanced irrigation practices and rigorous monitoring is necessary (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). Equitable access to desalinated water is another critical concern. While urban centers and industrial zones often benefit from large-scale desalination projects, rural and economically disadvantaged regions face limited access, exacerbating regional disparities in water availability (Gude, 2017). Addressing this disparity requires targeted investments and policy interventions to ensure that all communities benefit equitably from desalination infrastructure.

The prospects of desalination in Morocco will hinge on its ability to overcome these challenges through strategic investments and innovation. Scaling up the deployment of energy-efficient technologies, reducing the costs of desalinated water, and developing environmentally sustainable brine management solutions are essential steps forward (Al-Addous et al., 2024). Additionally, fostering partnerships to share best practices and leveraging international expertise can further enhance the efficiency and sustainability of desalination initiatives. By addressing these challenges proactively, Morocco is well-positioned to secure its water resources, support its agricultural and industrial sectors, and emerge as a global leader in sustainable desalination practices (Attar et al., 2022).

Wastewater treatment refers to all the physical, chemical, and biological processes used to eliminate or reduce the pollutants present in wastewater before it is discharged into the environment or reused (Shojaei and Shojaei, 2021). This treatment helps to protect water resources, improve water quality, and prevent pollution of the natural environment. It generally consists of several stages, such as pre-treatment (elimination of coarse elements), primary treatment (separation of solids), secondary treatment (biodegradation of organic pollutants), and sometimes tertiary treatment (to eliminate specific pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or pathogens) (Karri et al., 2021).

Wastewater can be treated using a variety of processes involving physical, chemical, and biological phenomena. These treatments offer various levels of purification, with costs varying according to the quality required by the receiving environment. Wastewater treatment methods are generally divided into several stages: pre-treatment, primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment (Figure 8) (Ding, 2023).

Pre-treatment is the first stage in the wastewater treatment process. It is based on mechanical or physical methods designed to eliminate the coarsest particles, such as sand, gravel, and grease (Nishat et al., 2023). This treatment is carried out in three phases: (i) screening: This operation consists of filtering the wastewater through grids, the bars of which are more or less widely spaced, to retain the largest elements. The screens are cleaned manually, mechanically, or automatically to collect the waste, which is then disposed of with household waste (Ye et al., 2021). (ii) Grit removal: This stage targets particles larger than 200 μm, mainly sand and gravel. The water flows through a channel at a speed of between 0.2 and 0.3 m/s, allowing the particles to settle to the bottom through sedimentation under their own weight. The sediment collected is then washed and either disposed of in a landfill or reused, depending on the quality of the washing (Silva, 2023). (iii) Degreasing and de-oiling: This stage aims to remove fats and oils from the wastewater, as they can impair the effectiveness of subsequent biological treatments. The process is based on flotation: air is injected at the bottom of the structure, causing the fats to rise to the surface. The fat is then scraped off, stored, and disposed of at a landfill site or incinerated (Sonawane et al., 2022).

Primary treatment is a physico-chemical process that eliminates more than 50% of suspended solids (SS), both mineral and organic, making it an essential stage in the treatment process. It is based on primary decantation, a gravity-based process that separates solids from liquids (Poleneni, 2020). This operation takes place in a settling tank, generally a large, slow-flowing basin, where the solid particles settle to the bottom in the form of primary sludge, trapping a first part of the pollution. The efficiency of decantation can be improved by adding chemicals such as sulphates, chlorides, or coagulation agents, a technique known as flocculation. This technique captures up to 60% of TSS and reduces biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) by around 30% (Zaharia et al., 2024).

Secondary treatment consists of a series of biological processes that encourage the biodegradation of pollutants by microorganisms. This can include temporary aerobically stabilized water bodies, biological filters, activated sludge treatment processes, aerobic reactors, and stabilization ponds (Chandran et al., 2023). There are different types of biological processes: (i) Activated sludge is an aerobic purification system in which wastewater, bacteria, and oxygen are mixed in aerated tanks. The bacteria break down the organic matter, producing secondary sludge, which is separated from the treated water in a clarifier (Wang et al., 2020). Some of the sludge is disposed of or used as fertilizer, while the rest is recycled in the tanks to maintain bacterial activity. This process eliminates 85–95% of the BOD5 (Koul et al., 2022). (ii) Bacterial beds are an aerobic treatment where water flows over a solid support, allowing micro-organisms (bacteria or fungi) to develop and break down the organic matter. This process forms a “biological film” that absorbs pollutants. The mixture of wastewater and biofilm is then sent to a secondary decanter to separate the sludge, while the treated water can be discharged into the natural environment. This treatment eliminates up to 90% of BOD5 (Goswami et al., 2022). (iii) Natural lagooning involves treating wastewater in shallow tanks exposed to light, allowing aerobic bacteria to break down organic pollutants, while anaerobic bacteria treat the sediment at the bottom. This process is inexpensive, consumes no energy, and requires few qualified personnel, but it requires large surfaces and partially eliminates nitrogen and phosphates (20 to 30%). Poorly sealed basins can lead to the risk of contaminating groundwater (Singh et al., 2022).

Tertiary treatment, or complementary treatment, is designed to eliminate nitrogen, phosphate, and biological pollution from domestic wastewater. They enable secondary treatment to be refined to improve water quality, making it easier to reuse in industry or for irrigation (Sabrina de Boer et al., 2022). These treatments are implemented when the requirements of the receiving environment make it necessary. They generally include nitrification–denitrification, biological or mixed dephosphatation (biological and physico-chemical), as well as bacterial and viral disinfection (Omar et al., 2024).

Over the last few decades, Morocco has made significant progress in wastewater treatment. These efforts are part of a national strategy to preserve water resources, meet the growing demand for drinking water, and promote sustainable development. This approach includes the collection of wastewater from domestic and industrial uses and rainwater discharged into the sewer system, which is then directed to a wastewater treatment plant (El Moussaoui et al., 2022). These facilities treat the wastewater to purify it and render it harmless, eliminating harmful elements for reuse and recycling. A wastewater treatment plant is usually located at the end of a wastewater collection network. Its role is to discharge the treated water back into the natural environment or to redirect it to a planned use (Hanae et al., 2024). It is made up of various devices through which the wastewater passes to undergo the treatment process. The configuration of a wastewater treatment plant depends on several factors, including its location, the budget available, the flow rate of water to be treated, the treatment method adopted, the level of purification required, and the final objective of the treatment (El Moussaoui et al., 2019).

According to Benkaroum and Boumadiane (2021), here is an overview of the investments and successes in this sector: The main aim of the National Sanitation Programme (PNA), launched in 2005, is to reduce water pollution, increase access to sanitation services, and modernize wastewater treatment infrastructure. Its ambitions include treating 60% of collected wastewater, covering 80% of urban areas with sewerage networks by 2030, and an overall investment estimated at several billion dirhams. Investments by public companies: ONEE (National Office for Electricity and Drinking Water): A central player in the implementation of sewerage and wastewater treatment projects, ONEE works closely with local authorities and international partners to develop and optimize the necessary infrastructure. Delegated companies: Companies such as Veolia and Suez, through their local subsidiaries, manage wastewater in large conurbations such as Casablanca, Rabat, and Tangiers, helping to improve sanitation services in these urban areas. International funding: Morocco receives financial support from the World Bank, the European Investment Bank (EIB), and other partners for the construction of modern wastewater treatment plants. In addition, initiatives such as the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) are helping to attract investment by promoting projects focused on environmental sustainability.

Morocco’s efforts in the field of wastewater treatment have borne fruit, achieving significant results at various levels. These advances testify to the country’s commitment to the sustainable management of water resources and the fight against pollution. The developments of modern infrastructure, the implementation of innovative projects, and awareness-raising initiatives in Morocco have sought to improve living conditions while managing environmental impacts (GGIREM, 2014). Here is an overview of the main achievements in this field: (i) Modern wastewater treatment plants: Morocco now has more than 150 operational wastewater treatment plants, some of which use advanced technologies such as biological treatment, reverse osmosis, and reuse of treated water (Table 3) (AIDD and EDD, 2020). Example: The Marrakech wastewater treatment plant is one of the largest in the country and reuses treated water to irrigate green spaces. (ii) Reuse of wastewater: Several pioneering projects enable treated wastewater to be reused in agriculture and the irrigation of public spaces. By 2023, around 30 million m³ of wastewater had been reused, with a target of 100 mm³ by 2030. (iii) Improved quality of life: The modernization of sanitation systems has reduced water-related diseases in urban and rural areas. Community initiatives and awareness campaigns have contributed to better wastewater management. (iv) Preservation of ecosystems: Efforts to treat wastewater have limited the pollution of rivers and groundwater, helping to protect sensitive ecosystems (Mishra et al., 2023).

In Morocco, wastewater treatment is essential for agriculture, particularly in the face of water scarcity and climate change (Ortega-Pozo et al., 2022). By providing a sustainable source of irrigation, treated wastewater helps alleviate pressure on natural resources such as groundwater and reservoirs (Ortega-Pozo et al., 2022). This solution is especially critical for ensuring reliable irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions, where water remains scarce and invaluable (Bihadassen et al., 2020). In addition, treated wastewater is rich in essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which enrich soil fertility while reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. This helps to increase agricultural yields while reducing costs for farmers (Mishra et al., 2022). Wastewater treatment also eliminates toxic substances and pathogens, protecting soil and crops from harmful contaminants and ensuring their long-term sustainability (Albalasmeh et al., 2020). This approach is part of a circular economy, transforming wastewater, once considered a waste product, into a valuable resource for agriculture. By limiting direct discharges into the environment, water treatment also helps to preserve ecosystems (Braga et al., 2022). In addition, access to treated water stimulates agricultural development in rural areas, generating economic opportunities for local communities, curbing the rural exodus, and playing a key role in combating desertification (Bellver-Domingo and Hernández-Sancho, 2022). Morocco is demonstrating a strong commitment to the reuse of wastewater through initiatives such as the National Liquid Sanitation and Wastewater Reuse Programme (PNA) and the installation of wastewater treatment plants in cities such as Marrakech, Agadir, and Ouarzazate (Ortega-Pozo et al., 2022). These projects aim to provide treated water for agricultural irrigation, thereby strengthening food security and the sector’s resilience in the face of climate and water resource challenges (Al-Saidi and Dehnavi, 2020). As a result, wastewater treatment is emerging as a sustainable and strategic solution for agriculture in Morocco. It makes it possible to preserve the environment, support food security, and promote balanced rural development while increasing the country’s capacity to meet tomorrow’s environmental challenges (Abdelmajid et al., 2021).

In response to increasing water stress, Morocco has prioritized wastewater management as a key strategy to safeguard its water resources. Since the launch of the National Program for Liquid Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment (PNA) in 2005, the country has made remarkable progress. The wastewater treatment rate, which stood at just 7% in 2006, exceeded 50% by 2020, with a target of 80% by 2050 (Habib, 2022). Nationwide, over 158 treatment plants have been established, processing substantial volumes of wastewater to mitigate pollution in rivers and groundwater. These facilities employ diverse technologies, ranging from biological treatments to advanced systems tailored for water reuse (Bennis, 2023). Reusing treated wastewater plays a crucial role in Morocco’s national strategy. This resource is now utilized for agricultural irrigation, maintaining green spaces, and supporting golf courses, alleviating pressure on drinking water supplies (Elamé, 2023). Morocco has set an ambitious target to recycle 100 million m³ of wastewater annually by 2027. This goal is bolstered by international funding and awareness campaigns designed to garner stronger support from local authorities and the general population (Mbarki et al., 2024). However, many challenges remain. Some wastewater treatment plants fail to meet international quality standards, posing risks to public health and the environment (Ortega-Pozo et al., 2022). Studies have revealed high concentrations of microbial contaminants in some facilities, including helminth eggs, exceeding the recommended thresholds for safe irrigation. Moreover, rural areas remain particularly vulnerable, with a large proportion of wastewater neither collected nor treated, leading to diffuse pollution of groundwater. In addition, the high cost of modern treatment technologies, such as reverse osmosis membranes or activated sludge systems, is a major obstacle for many local authorities (Haldar et al., 2022). To meet these challenges, Morocco is relying on a number of strategic initiatives. The recent opening of the “National Thematic Institute for Scientific Research on Water (INTR-Eau)” in Agadir aims to develop technological solutions tailored to the country’s specific characteristics, in particular low-cost treatment systems and techniques for recovering sewage sludge (Taheripour et al., 2020). At the same time, the strengthening of public-private partnerships is playing a key role in the modernization of infrastructure. In addition, the regulatory framework is being revised to introduce more stringent standards for the discharge and reuse of wastewater (Basri et al., 2020). Although the challenges remain numerous, Morocco is clearly determined to transform its wastewater into a valuable resource. Continued investment, scientific research, and awareness-raising efforts will be crucial to ensuring the sustainable and efficient management of this essential resource (Nourredine et al., 2023).

Mulching is a key agricultural water management practice. By applying organic or inorganic materials to the soil surface, this technique limits water evaporation, regulates soil temperature, and controls weed growth (El-Beltagi et al., 2022). In Morocco, mulching with cereal straw, leaves, or bark has been demonstrated to be effective in conserving soil moisture and reducing irrigation requirements while improving soil fertility through the natural degradation of these materials (Saha et al., 2018). The use of organic mulch also promotes microbial life in the soil, contributing to improved organic matter degradation and soil enrichment (Iqbal et al., 2020). However, the choice of mulch material is essential to maximize its benefits. For example, although plastic mulches are effective in controlling weeds and limiting evaporation, their environmental impact is a concern owing to their non-degradability (Zhang et al., 2021). In contrast, organic mulches offer long-term benefits by enriching the soil but can sometimes have allelopathic effects on certain crops, requiring careful selection of materials to be used (Monteiro and Santos, 2022).

Live cover crops, which are planted to protect the soil and are not harvested, play a central role in water management in Morocco. These crops, often referred to as “green manures,” act as living mulch, protecting the soil against erosion, improving soil quality, and promoting moisture retention (Scavo et al., 2020). They also contribute to weed management by limiting weed development and attracting beneficial insects, while repelling certain pests (Scavo et al., 2022). Cover crops are particularly useful for reducing water loss through evaporation during drought periods. By acting as a protective cover, they minimize variations in soil temperature and help maintain stable humidity, enabling the better use of available water (Gabriel et al., 2021). These practices make it possible to diversify cropping systems, increase the resilience of agroecosystems, and optimize the use of water resources.

Tillage management is crucial for optimizing water use, reducing soil erosion and temperature, and enhancing water retention, with conservation tillage being particularly effective. This practice minimizes soil disturbance, retains crop residues on the soil surface, and enriches the soil with organic matter (Shakoor et al., 2022). By limiting erosion and improving the soil structure, conservation tillage promotes better water infiltration and reduces losses due to evaporation. It also encourages better nutrient cycling and prevents nutrient leaching (Zhang et al., 2022). Another key practice, direct seeding, involves sowing seeds directly into unworked soil, thus preserving the natural structure of the soil (Seitz et al., 2020). By avoiding soil disturbance, this technique reduces runoff, increases water infiltration, and preserves soil moisture, which is particularly important in times of drought. Reduced tillage, which consists of limiting plowing operations and maintaining the cover of plant residues, also contributes to water management by reducing evaporation and increasing moisture retention (Du et al., 2022). By improving the soil structure and conserving moisture, these practices optimize water use while preserving soil fertility and durability in the long term.

Agroecological fertilization is another crucial aspect of improving water management in sustainable agricultural systems. Organic and biological methods play an essential role in optimizing water use and contribute to soil health. Nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, directly influence water uptake by plants by regulating root physiology and cellular processes (Sardans and Peñuelas, 2021). The use of organic fertilizers, such as manure, compost, or plant residues, which decompose slowly, offers a constant supply of nutrients and improves the water-holding capacity of soils (Shaji et al., 2021). In addition, these practices promote biodiversity by stimulating soil microorganisms and strengthening symbiotic relationships such as those between plant roots and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These fungi contribute to reduced irrigation requirements and improved soil structure by increasing nutrient uptake and moisture (Bano and Uzair, 2021). Biofertilizers such as Azotobacter and Rhizobium also play a fundamental role in improving nutrient availability for plants and reducing groundwater pollution from excess nutrients. Through their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and solubilize phosphorus, these microorganisms help reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers while increasing water-use efficiency and reducing environmental impacts (Anli et al., 2020). In brief, agroecological fertilization, in addition to improving soil fertility, contributes directly to optimizing water management, notably by reducing waste and preventing nutrient leaching. These approaches not only improve water use efficiency but also promote more sustainable and resilient agriculture in the face of climate change.

Intercropping, which involves growing several types of crops simultaneously in the same field, optimizes water use by minimizing the competition between crops for this precious resource. By choosing complementary crops with different growth habits and water requirements, this practice maximizes the soil moisture uptake. For example, deep-rooted crops can exploit water from deeper soil layers, whereas shallow-rooted crops use moisture from the upper soil layers (Yin et al., 2020). In addition, dense vegetation cover created by intercropping reduces evaporation, conserves soil moisture, and improves water retention. This system also reduces weed pressure, which decreases competition for water and the need for chemical treatments (Bainard et al., 2020; Gu et al., 2021).

Agroforestry combines trees with crops and/or livestock in the same space, significantly improving water-use efficiency. Deep roots of trees allow better water infiltration and contribute to moisture retention in the soil, whereas the shade provided by the trees reduces heat stress on crops, increasing their ability to use water more efficiently (Pavlidis and Tsihrintzis, 2018). Trees also act as “water pumps,” drawing moisture from deep into the soil and slowly releasing it, while enriching the soil with organic matter via their leaf litter, improving soil fertility and structure. By reducing erosion and runoff, agroforestry helps conserve water and protect soils from degradation (Kaushal et al., 2021). Agroforestry systems, which combine trees and crops, not only capture and store water through the deep roots of trees, but also enhance the biodiversity of agricultural ecosystems (Karray et al., 2008). In Morocco, these diversification systems are commonly used by small-scale farmers. In addition, the oasis ecosystems of Morocco (such as those in the Draa, Tafilalet, and Figuig regions) exemplify the harmonious integration of agriculture, livestock farming, and water management, which are characteristic of traditional agroforestry systems (Santoro, 2023). These systems also contribute to water regulation on a landscape scale, reducing the risk of erosion and improving water management in cultivated areas. For example, combining leguminous crops with trees can help fix nitrogen, improve soil quality, and optimize the use of water and nutrients in agroecosystems. This approach also supports biodiversity and reduces dependence on chemical inputs, thereby contributing to more sustainable water management (Aminu et al., 2019).

Crop rotation, which involves alternating different crops in the same plot over time, plays a key role in optimizing water use. This practice promotes soil regeneration, improves soil structure, and reduces erosion, thereby facilitating water infiltration and retention (Cui et al., 2022). By cultivating plants with different water requirements, crop rotation enables better management of water demand while maintaining yields, even during times of drought (Yu et al., 2022). In addition, it limits the spread of diseases and pests, reduces the need to use chemicals, and improves water quality (Fan et al., 2022). Crop rotation also attracts beneficial insects and maintains an ecological balance that is favorable for water management in agroecosystems (Ogilvie et al., 2019).