According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), desertification is land degradation caused by multiple factors such as climatic hazards and human activities in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, affecting nearly 40% of arable land (Figure 1; Prăvălie et al., 2021). This phenomenon is the main cause of various problems, including the scarcity of land resources, increasing poverty, declining agricultural production, worsening food insecurity, and hindering global economic development (Bedoui, 2020). Among other global regions, North African countries are affected by a range of aridity indices (Mihi et al., 2024). The level of desertification varies significantly from one country to another, depending on climatic conditions, agricultural practices, and land management strategies. Currently, this phenomenon affects approximately 30% of the land in Egypt, 33% in Tunisia, 24% in Libya, 15% in Algeria, and 10% in Morocco (Figure 2; Mihi et al., 2022).

In northwest Egypt, specifically in El Minya Governorate, 86% of the region was classified as highly vulnerable to desertification, primarily due to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, poor soil quality, inadequate soil management, and limited vegetation cover (Nour-Eldin et al., 2023). In the Egyptian Western Desert, 18% of El Farafala Oasis was classified as highly vulnerable, while 78% was moderately vulnerable to desertification (Fadl et al., 2021).

In Algeria, desertification is a major problem, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where drought and human activities are pronounced (Bouhata and Bensekhria, 2021). The sensitivity of Algerian regions, mainly in the high plains, to desertification increased between 2000 and 2020 from 10% to 83% (Alliouche and Kouba, 2023). Moreover, the extent of desertification in the Algerian green barrier increased by more than 50% between 1984 and 2020 (Mihi et al., 2024). In the regions of El Bayadh, Djelfa, Ain El Orak Boualem, Sidi Taiffour, Sidi Amar, Sidi Slimane, Stitten, Mehara, Ghassoul, Krakda, Chellala, Arbaouet, and Boussemghoun, desertification affects between 36% and 45% of the total area (Djeddaoui et al., 2017). These areas are characterized by degraded or highly degraded vegetation growing on well-developed or poorly developed alluvial soils (Madi et al., 2023). In northern Algeria, sandstorms from the Sahara further exacerbate this situation (Huebner and Al-Quraishi, 2024). In the northeastern province of Tébessa, the risk of desertification can reach up to 59% of the total area (Mihi et al., 2022). In other regions, vulnerability to desertification ranges from 45% to 70% in the eastern part of the country (Bouhata and Bensekhria, 2021), from 8% to 70% in the western highlands (Kadri and Nasrallah, 2023), and 60% in the low and high areas of Hodna (Boudjemline and Semar, 2018), exacerbated by the lack of vegetation cover and increased anthropogenic activity.

In Morocco, desertification affects a vast area, particularly in arid regions with prolonged drought and fragile soils. In southeastern Morocco, characterized by limited vegetation cover, low erosion resistance, insufficient management practices, and overexploitation of groundwater resources, 20–63% of soils are vulnerable to desertification (Labbaci and Bouchaou, 2021; Ait Lamqadem et al., 2018; Kacem et al., 2021; Karmaoui et al., 2023). In the Skoura Oasis, desertification impacts 76% of the area (Rayne et al., 2023). In the Ouergha watershed, subject to semi-arid and sub-humid climates, 16.2% of the land is considered critically degraded due to steep slopes and lack of vegetation cover (Boutallaka et al., 2023). Similarly, the Oued-El-Maleh basin shows high sensitivity, with more than 50% of the area affected, 35% of which is classified as highly sensitive, due to intensive agriculture and population pressure around large cities such as Mohammedia and El Gara (Lahlaoi et al., 2017). In the Middle Moulouya basin, located in northeastern Morocco, more than 86% of the land experiences moderate to extreme desertification (Lamaamri et al., 2023). Finally, in the Souss River Basin, in the center-west of the country, 72% of the land is vulnerable to desertification, particularly in the Anti-Atlas Mountains and the central plains, under an arid to sub-desert climate (Bouabid et al., 2010).

In Tunisia, desertification affects a significant proportion of the land. In the Talh region, in the center of the country, 82% of the surface area is classified as critical due to low vegetation cover, poorly structured soils, and unsuitable agricultural practices (Bedoui, 2020). It has been estimated that 96% of the Tunisian territory is directly or indirectly affected by desertification (Institut national des études stratégiques (Tunisie), 2017). A 2 °C increase in the global average temperature by 2050 could halve the arable land in North Africa (Benabdelkader et al., 2021).

In Libya, desertification varies in intensity but remains pervasive, covering 95% of the land area (Zurqani et al., 2019). Several factors, including overexploitation of natural resources, deforestation, overgrazing, and inappropriate agricultural practices, have been identified as the main causes (Ben Mahmoud and Zurqani, 2021). Deforestation, exacerbated by rapid urbanization and charcoal production, has reduced forest cover from 24,344 hectares in 2000 to 11,866 hectares in 2018 (Global Forest Watch).

Erosion is the second leading driver of land degradation in North Africa, resulting in a significant reduction in soil fertility and texture. This phenomenon constitutes a major environmental problem, with considerable impacts on ecosystem sustainability and development. Erosion is more common in dry and semi-arid climates, where natural soil regeneration is slow and vegetation cover is limited (Salhi et al., 2024). It is particularly pronounced in vulnerable urban areas, where the growth of informal settlements and the intensification of extreme weather events exacerbate the situation. Indeed, more than 15% of North African soils are affected by erosion, though the severity varies from country to country (Salhi et al., 2024).

In Morocco, water erosion is the primary cause of soil degradation, affecting approximately 40% of the land (El Assaoui et al., 2023). According to Namr and Mrabet (2004), more than 77% of potentially exploitable soils in northern Morocco are exposed to very high erosion risks. In this region, an annual erosion rate of 735 t/ha/year has been reported in the Oued El Makhazine watershed (Belasri and Lakhouili, 2016), 168 t/ha/year in the upper Inaouène watershed (Hamouch et al., 2024), 37.8 t/ha/year in the Nekor watershed (Okacha et al., 2023), 24.2 t/ha/year in the metropolitan area of Tangier (Salhi et al., 2023), and 10 t/ha/year in the Loukkos watershed (Acharki et al., 2022). These areas are characterized by recently burned arable land, fallow land, and steep slopes (Salhi et al., 2023; Amhani and Tribak, 2021). An erosion rate between 20 and 227.67 t/ha/year was recorded in the Western High Atlas (Bou-Imajjane et al., 2020), and between 58 and 142.6 t/ha/year in the Middle Atlas (El Jazouli et al., 2019; Tairi et al., 2021), largely due to steep slopes and degradation of vegetation cover (El Jazouli et al., 2017). In the Casablanca-Settat region, the erosion rate can reach 90 t/ha/year (Mazigh et al., 2022), while in the Tensift basin, the erosion rate is estimated at 35 t/ha/year (Bammou et al., 2024).

In Algeria, 20% of the country's total land area is at risk of water erosion, and nearly 80% of agricultural land is located in the region most susceptible to this phenomenon (Bouguerra et al., 2017, 2023). In the Fergoug watershed, soil losses due to erosion vary between 617 and 1,188 tons per hectare per year, depending on climatic conditions and slopes (Bouderbala et al., 2018). In the Kebir Rhumel watershed, located in northeastern Algeria, the average annual soil erosion rate is 17.92 tons per hectare, with losses reaching up to 190.50 tons per hectare per year (Zeghmar et al., 2022). According to reports, 61.5% of the Isser basin is subject to erosion, with intensity ranging from moderate to very high (> 20 tons per hectare per year). Additionally, 25% of the total area of this basin is affected by erosion levels considered high to very high (>50 tons per hectare per year; Fredj et al., 2024). In the Mafragh watershed in northeastern Algeria, 74% of the total area is affected by erosion, with 26% at risk of severe erosion (Medjani et al., 2023). In the Oued El Ardjem basin, soil sensitivity to water erosion varies between 31.08% and 21.38%, depending on the slopes (Tesfamichael, 2004). In the Oued el-Hai watershed, the rate of soil loss is particularly high, reaching 30 tons per hectare per year, affecting 23.2% of the total area (Bensekhria and Bouhata, 2022).

In Tunisia, agricultural lands in semi-arid areas of North Africa are particularly vulnerable to soil erosion (Jebari et al., 2010). Analyses show that the country faces a significant risk of water erosion: 6.43% of its total area suffers very high soil losses, exceeding 30 tons per hectare per year, while 4.20% records high annual losses, between 20 and 30 tons per hectare (Serbaji et al., 2023). In the Sgilil River watershed in northeastern Tunisia, approximately 52% of the area is degraded by erosion, with an average loss of 6 t/ha/year between 1990 and 2019 (Cheikha et al., 2023). Average annual soil losses in the Koutine watershed monitoring sites range from 0.01 to 12.5 t/ha/year (Ben Zaied et al., 2021). In the Merguellil watershed, the annual soil erosion rate was estimated to be between 18 t/ha/year in 1980 and 16 t/ha/year in 2020 (Hermassi et al., 2023). In southeastern Tunisia, 99% of the Oued El Hamma watershed is affected by erosion, with an average soil loss rate of approximately 0.2 t/ha/year (Jemai et al., 2021). In the Oum El Ghram and Bou Said watersheds, high to very high erosion rates are mainly concentrated in mountainous areas, covering 5.22% and 7% of the study area, respectively (Mnasri et al., 2024).

In Egypt, the northern coastal regions are highly exposed to water erosion due to high annual rainfall (150–200 mm; Wassif and Wassif, 2021), soil characteristics, and topographic factors (El-Nady and Shoman, 2017). In regions with steep slopes such as Sidi Barrani and Al-Sallum, annual soil losses reach 2 t/ha/year (Mohamed et al., 2013). High erosion risks (88%) have also been reported in the El Minya region (Nour-Eldin et al., 2023). Moreover, the erosion rate can reach 55 t/ha/year in the steep areas of the Wadi Naghamish region (Azab et al., 2021). In the El-Mador Valley basin, water erosion can displace more than 2,500 t/ha/year of soil (Hagras, 2023). Furthermore, AbdelRahman and Arafat (2020) reported that erosion affects 85% of agricultural areas in El-Mador, resulting in a 17% reduction in agricultural productivity. In the Western Desert oases, wind erosion risks range from moderate to severe, with average soil loss rates between 4.5 and 66.9 Mg/ha/year (Hegazi et al., 2005).

In Libya, much of the agricultural land is under pressure from soil erosion, loss of natural vegetation cover, and overexploitation of irrigation water resources (Saad et al., 2013). About 65% of agricultural land has lost its topsoil and essential nutrients, reflecting a trend similar to that observed across Africa (Jones et al., 2013). Wind erosion is the main environmental challenge in Libya, resulting in the loss of fertile topsoil and causing problems related to sand displacement, accumulation, and encroachment, which particularly threaten agricultural areas and food security. In Southern Jeffara, 32.5% of the total area is affected by wind erosion and is considered highly susceptible (Arrak, 2022).

Globally, salinity is the second most serious threat to agricultural production after erosion. Soil salinization is a major problem, affecting 6% of arable land worldwide, with an alarming 63% in Africa (El Hasini et al., 2019). Approximately 34 million hectares of soil, particularly in North Africa, are significantly affected by this phenomenon (Negacz et al., 2022). In Morocco, soil salinization is a substantial obstacle in irrigated areas, compromising both agricultural productivity and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Approximately 158.7 thousand hectares of Moroccan irrigated land are impacted by salinity (Oumara and El Youssfi, 2022). The irrigated areas most affected by salinization include Tafilalet (70.4%), Ouarzazate (65.9%), Haouz de Marrakech (29.9%), Souss Massa (28.8%), Basse Moulouya (27.7%), and Loukkos (14.5%; Seif-Ennasr et al., 2022). In Morocco, the soil salinity issues in irrigated areas are mainly attributed to insufficient drainage, rising saline water tables, high evapotranspiration rates, and the use of irrigation water with a high risk of salinization (Daoud et al., 2016). In coastal areas, soil deterioration is primarily caused by saltwater infiltration due to overexploitation of groundwater, as well as contamination from the intensive and poorly controlled use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides (Hssaisoune et al., 2020). The regions bordering the Oum Er-Rbia wadi have been reported to experience high levels of salinity (Didi et al., 2019).

In Egypt, 37% of the Nile Delta is affected by salinity due to poor agricultural management and climate change (AbdelRahman et al., 2022; Enar et al., 2021; Allam et al., 2024). Moreover, in the Siwa region of northern Egypt, soil salinity has been identified as a serious problem (Eid et al., 2024). Additionally, rising sea levels are a major factor in salinization in Egypt and could have significant consequences if no protective measures are implemented. Indeed, 90% of agricultural soils can be degraded by salinity with an increase of 0.5 m (Wahba et al., 2019). This situation is attributed to insufficient drainage systems, global warming, and the lack of an effective agricultural soil management strategy.

In Tunisia, soil salinization also poses a significant challenge in both the North and the South, affecting nearly half of the irrigated agricultural land (Louati et al., 2018). Louati et al. (2017) reported that irrigation with poor-quality water has led to soil salinization in the regions of Zelba, Bir Lahmar, Hazeg, El Houdh, Sfax, and El Fidh. In the North, irrigation with highly saline water is the primary cause of salinization of agricultural land in Mahdia (Farhat et al., 2019). Ibrahimi et al. (2022) reported that soils in the Metouia oasis in southeastern Tunisia have been impacted by salinization due to the cumulative effects of saline irrigation. In the Fatnassa oasis, north of the Kebili region (southern Tunisia), Bouarfa et al. (2009) noted soil salinization due to saline irrigation water. Agricultural soils in the Kairouan region, central Tunisia, were reported by Kanzari et al. (2012) as being saline.

In Algeria, approximately 55–60% of soils in the south and southeast of the country are affected by salinity due to several factors, including the arid climate (Benslama et al., 2020). In southern Algeria, in the regions of Hassi Miloud, Tolga, Ouargla, Chott El Beida, and El Outaya, soils are affected by salinization due to saltwater irrigation and inappropriate agricultural practices (Semar et al., 2019; Belghemmaz et al., 2018; Laoufi et al., 2023; Selmane et al., 2024). In the Biskra region of southeastern Algeria and the Bas Cheliff plain, 60% and 75% of the areas are affected by salinization, respectively (Abdennour et al., 2020). In the Bordjia plain, soil salinity has increased by 24% over the last decade (Mostefa et al., 2022; Ziane et al., 2022). This increase has been attributed to the use of saline water for irrigation.

In Libya, 55% of soils are degraded, with salinization being the most significant factor (30%; Abagandura et al., 2017). In the northwest and northeast regions, 12% and 23% of the areas are considered salt-affected, respectively (Nwer et al., 2014). The distribution of salt-affected soils in Libya varies depending on anthropogenic activities. Most coastal areas are threatened by seawater intrusion, leading to salinity problems caused by subsequent irrigation with local wells (Nwer et al., 2014). Approximately 700,799 hectares of primary agricultural areas in Murzuq, Kufrah, Jabal al Akhdar, Jabal Nafusah, and Jifarah, regardless of irrigation, are degraded due to salinity (Abagandura et al., 2017). In Wadi Al-Shatti, southern Libya, agricultural soils have been classified as highly saline (Al-Tamimi, 2017).

In addition to the factors mentioned above, North African soils are undergoing serious degradation due to pollution. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in intensive agriculture significantly contributes to soil contamination. This phenomenon threatens natural ecosystems, agricultural productivity, and food security.

In Egypt's El-Fayoum governorate, water shortages are being addressed by reusing wastewater, which negatively affects agricultural soil quality (Attia et al., 2018). Long-term irrigation with wastewater causes the accumulation of toxic elements in the soil, such as Pb, Cd, Ni, and Fe (Alnaimy et al., 2021). This is the case in the El-Bats, El Sadat, and El-Wadi regions, where soils are rendered unusable due to high concentrations of pollution from large quantities of domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastewater (El-Zeiny et al., 2019; Badawy et al., 2020). It should also be noted that dust storms rich in PM2.5 particles in Egypt negatively affect the quality of agricultural soils (Mostafa et al., 2024). Indeed, the soils of Greater Cairo and the Nile Delta have higher concentrations of pollutants, such as radioactive thorium, in certain strategic areas for agriculture and food exports in the country (Shaltout et al., 2013). Agricultural soils in Quessna, southwest of the Nile Delta, have been reported to be at ecological risk due to high concentrations of zinc, chromium, and lead, which exceed reference values (Khalifa and Gad, 2018). Another study conducted by Shokr et al. (2016) on agricultural soils in El-Gharbia Governorate showed elevated levels of chromium, nickel, and vanadium due to industrial and urban activities.

Soils in Libya are exposed to numerous pollutants related to agricultural intensification and non-compliance with good agricultural practices, leading to a decline in soil fertility (Nwer et al., 2021). Around the city of Benghazi, soils are contaminated with trace elements such as copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium due to the intensive use of amendments (Haeba et al., 2013). Aishah and Elssaidi (2019) reported high levels of pollutants in soils around the industrial zones of Sirte, Benghazi, Komes, and Zwara, with a particular risk of pollution in the areas of Al-Marj and Benghazi. Banana et al. (2017) also reported that soils in Abu-Kammash are polluted by vanadium, titanium, tungsten, beryllium, and phosphorus, which originate from wastewater discharges onto agricultural soils. Furthermore, Pichtel (2016) reported the presence of hydrocarbons in Libyan soils, which negatively affects soil quality and disrupts ecosystems. In Zliten, agricultural soils around a cement plant are heavily polluted by cement dust produced by the factory (Mlitan et al., 2013).

In Tunisia, the soils of the Gulf of Gabès are contaminated by industrial pollutants, resulting in negative ecological impacts (El Zrelli et al., 2015). These pollutants include lead, zinc, chromium, cadmium, mercury, and copper, partly originating from fertilizers and industrial waste. In central-eastern Tunisia, Jeder et al. (2018) reported environmental and health risks related to the excessive use of agrochemicals and pesticides in agricultural soils. The use of wastewater for irrigation remains a source of soil contamination in various Tunisian agricultural regions (Mahjoub et al., 2020). Indeed, high concentrations of cadmium, lead, and zinc were detected in arable land in the agricultural region adjacent to the former Jebel Ressas ore mine due to wastewater irrigation (Attia et al., 2018).

In Morocco, in the Elhajeb region, the soil-groundwater system has been contaminated by the migration of trace elements such as zinc, chromium, and copper from water to deeper soil layers, as well as to plants (Belaid et al., 2019). In the Zaida mine area, near Haute Moulouya, agricultural soils are contaminated with high concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper (Laghlimi et al., 2015; Iavazzo et al., 2012). Similarly, near the Aït Ammar iron ore mine, located in Oued Zem, Khouribga province, soils are heavily polluted by heavy metals in the following order of concentration: Pb > Cd > Cu > Cr > Zn (Nouri, 2016). In the irrigated area of Beni Amir in Tadla, soils are contaminated with metals such as Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, and Cd, with concentrations exceeding the WHO and FAO limits (Oumenskou et al., 2018). Zaakour et al. (2023) reported that soils in the coastal area of Doukkala, one of the most agricultural regions in Morocco, exhibited a higher pollution index due to significant industrial activity. Agricultural soils in the Mohammedia-Benslimane area are also polluted, with concentrations of Zn, Pb, and Cd exceeding the standard values (Zaakour et al., 2022). In the agricultural areas of Fez-Amont, Zerrari et al. (2023) reported that agricultural soils show average levels of heavy metal pollution. In the southeastern region of the Khouribga phosphate plateaus, levels of metals such as Zn, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Cd surpassed both local background levels and the thresholds permitted by FAO and WHO guidelines (Barakat et al., 2022).

Like other North African countries, Algeria's agricultural lands suffer from particulate pollution, primarily due to the transportation sector, open-air burning of municipal waste, and heavy industry (Sellami et al., 2022). In the Oued Smar region, agricultural soils contain pollutants at levels 78 times higher than the permitted threshold (Benosmane, 2021). In northwestern Algeria, high concentrations of hydrocarbons with potential toxicological risks have been reported in soils (Mebarka et al., 2012). According to Mouhoun-Chouaki et al. (2019), leachates from the Aïn-El-Hammam landfills have led to an increase in soil organic matter content, as well as a significant accumulation of metals such as nickel, copper, cadmium, zinc, and chromium in agricultural soils.

By intensifying extreme weather events, climate change is increasing both the frequency and intensity of extreme temperatures, precipitation, and droughts. Indeed, the global average temperature rose by 0.74 °C between 1906 and 2005 and is expected to increase by 1.5 to 2.0 °C by 2100 (Zurqani et al., 2019). These changes also contribute to a rise in global sea level, projected to reach 0.5 m by 2050 (Sweet et al., 2017). Climate hazards directly influence hydrological processes, which play a crucial role in land degradation, primarily through erosion (Eekhout and de Vente, 2022). Similarly, land degradation increases the vulnerability of regions to the impacts of climate change, highlighting a complex and interdependent relationship between these phenomena (Briassoulis, 2019). These factors amplify the combined risks of erosion and flooding, thereby increasing the vulnerability of North Africa and other regions to extreme hydroclimatic events (Cuomo et al., 2021). Additionally, increased land degradation is exacerbated by the rapid development of semi-informal urban areas. The swift urbanization of port cities and the ineffective implementation of transformation projects actively degrade soils, deplete fertile land, and increase sedimentation in neighboring hydrological systems (Lim et al., 2019). Moreover, intensive land-use practices, combined with alterations to natural drainage networks and watercourses caused by the intensification of human activity in the hinterlands of these cities, accelerate soil erosion, compromising the long-term sustainability of ecosystems (Castellano et al., 2019).

Intense storms place significant pressure on already fragile soils on steep slopes, where heavy rainfall and concentrated torrents accelerate the process of soil erosion and detachment (Salhi et al., 2022). In addition, prolonged periods of drought reduce vegetation cover and soil moisture, increasing vulnerability to erosion during subsequent intense rains (Hadria et al., 2021; Okacha et al., 2023).

Climate anomalies directly interact with soil erosion, altering precipitation patterns and intensifying the strength of atmospheric jets, thus influencing the climatic conditions of affected areas (Stendel et al., 2021). Severe soil degradation facilitates the introduction and spread of invasive species. This dynamic creates a feedback loop where erosion and climate stress reinforce each other, amplifying their effects on ecosystems (Denley et al., 2019). According to Renssen (2022), the effects of climate change on African countries could lead to drying and accelerate the desertification already underway in the region. These conditions, combined with the long-term trend toward drying caused by the progressive weakening of the summer monsoon due to astronomical factors, have resulted in the collapse of the last plant formations still present in areas that are now desert. The conversion of grasslands to desert results in a significant increase in surface albedo of up to 6%, which reduces the net radiation available to heat the surface. This causes local radiative cooling in North Africa, accompanied by a decrease in sensible heat flux. This change increases the stability of the atmosphere, raising surface pressure, drying the air, reducing convective precipitation, and decreasing soil moisture in North African countries (Renssen, 2022). According to Carvalho et al. (2022), future climate projections predict a significant reduction in precipitation, up to 30–40%, in northern Africa by the end of the century (2081–2100). These changes would lead to a marked increase in aridity, estimated at around 50%, in the Mediterranean region, with a particularly pronounced impact in North Africa.

As a country blessed with an arid to semi-arid environment, Tunisia faces significant water and soil management challenges. Irregular rainfall and intensive agricultural activity have placed greater pressure on natural resources, necessitating integrated strategies to ensure the sustainability of ecosystems and agricultural productivity (Dhaouadi et al., 2020). Conserving agricultural soil is a critical issue in Tunisia, where soil fertility is threatened by erosion caused by water and wind. To combat these phenomena, several techniques have been introduced, notably the construction of benches and slopes to limit runoff and promote water infiltration in the soil (Hermassi et al., 2023). Furthermore, biological techniques such as agroforestry and cover crops have been promoted to preserve soil structure and reduce erosion (Srivastava et al., 2024). Integrated water resource management involves a combination of conservation, water mobilization, and effective usage. Investments in hill dams and artificial lakes have been made to store rainwater, thereby reducing flood risk while providing a water supply for irrigating crops during dry seasons (Omrani and Ouessar, 2012). Irrigation, especially drip irrigation, is widely used to minimize losses and increase water efficiency, enabling crops to adapt better to drought conditions (Allani et al., 2022). Tunisia has also implemented policies for sustainable management, notably the National Water and Soil Conservation Programme (PNEC), aimed at combining reforestation measures with efforts to combat desertification and enhance agricultural techniques. Additionally, farmers receive financial incentives, through subsidies and grants, for adopting environmentally friendly practices, thus promoting sustainable production systems (Schütze et al., 2025). Specific strategies to improve the resilience of agricultural soil are also in place in Tunisia. The Sustainable Land Management Project (PGDT), supported by various international organizations, is designed to enhance farmers' capacity to implement agroecological practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and the cultivation of nitrogen-fixing plants to improve soil fertility. Innovative methods like organic mulching and low tillage practices are also promoted to maintain soil moisture and reduce erosion (Nefzi, 2024). As a result, Tunisia has introduced a range of programs and strategies aimed at integrating soil conservation measures with the sustainable use of water resources. Despite these efforts, challenges persist, particularly due to the effects of climate change and rising water demand. A well-coordinated strategy that combines innovative technology, cooperative farm management, and adaptation to changing climatic conditions remains vital to ensure the sustainability of agricultural areas and secure the country's overall water supply.

Community and cooperative organizations in Algeria are playing a key role in fostering agro-ecological approaches, especially in light of the increasing challenges facing the environment, including desertification, water resource management, and the effects of climate change (Ferrah and Oubelli, 2013). They serve as drivers in the transition to sustainable agriculture, bringing farmers together and encouraging them to adopt environmentally respectful practices. Through a series of workshops, awareness-raising campaigns, and training sessions, farmers gain the necessary knowledge to incorporate agro-ecological practices into their operations (Loconto et al., 2016). Among those promoted are crop rotation, conservation agriculture, pest management, and reduced use of toxic chemicals, all of which are strategies particularly suited to local conditions. They help farmers understand the advantages of these techniques, not only in terms of environmental protection but also for the long-term profitability of their farms (Requier-Desjardins et al., 2024). Farmers' cooperatives, often composed of small farmers, play a crucial role in providing easier market access to resources, thereby encouraging the adoption of these agroecological methods. This allows growers to share the input costs of ecological products, such as approved seeds, eco-friendly production equipment, and low-water consumption irrigation systems (Daoudi and Wampfler, 2010). These collective bodies also provide farmers with access to financing for organic farming initiatives and offer advisory support services tailored to their specific needs. Farmers' associations are important for connecting farmers with one another, facilitating the sharing of experiences and knowledge (Benmehaia and Brabez, 2016). Cooperatives help farmers become better organized, thereby increasing their negotiating power, especially regarding access to new organic and sustainable production markets. With their support, cooperatives enhance farmers' resilience to climatic fluctuations while promoting innovation in local farming practices (Slimi et al., 2021). Furthermore, their capacity to unite local producers serves as a mechanism for conserving biological diversity and improving soil quality. For these initiatives to succeed, increased support from government, local authorities, and development cooperation partners is essential to provide financial and technological assistance, as well as to establish agricultural policies favorable to agroecology (Sher et al., 2024).

Sustainably intensifying agricultural production involves adopting new, innovative cropping techniques that efficiently use resources while maintaining soil fertility. Increasing intercropping capacity offers a promising way to enhance crop productivity while helping to preserve the soil. The effect of growing intercrops on soil protection and agricultural soil fertility in Egypt is described by Shrestha et al. (2021). Growing intercrops enables improved water and nutrient resource use. Abdel-Wahab et al. (2019) demonstrated that combining soybean and maize in an intercropping system maximizes seed yield and water efficiency while minimizing insect infestations. Furthermore, Sherif et al. (2019) showed that increasing soybean planting density enhances yield value without significantly affecting maize plant growth, thereby optimizing agricultural productivity and conserving cultivated agricultural soil. Intercropping also reduces pest infestations and plant diseases. Lamlom et al. (2019) found that intercropping cotton with onion reduces the density of plant-parasitic nematodes in the soil, improving fiber quality and cotton yield. Similarly, Messiha et al. (2019) discovered that a crop rotation combining maize, potato, and cabbage decreased the incidence of Ralstonia solanacearum, which causes potato brown rot, due to the suppressive action of antagonistic soil microorganisms. Growing intercrops has a positive impact on soil structure and fertility, a fact that is widely recognized. Salama et al. (2020) investigated the sunflower-soybean combination and found that it enhanced the biomass and nutritional quality of forage while maintaining a good balance of soil organic matter and nutrients. Moreover, the crop rotation studied by Messiha et al. (2019) showed improved populations of beneficial bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens and actinomycetes), thereby enhancing soil health. The beneficial impact of intercropping systems, especially the combination of soybean and maize, on efficient resource use and agricultural yield productivity was demonstrated in Egypt by Abdel-Wahab et al. (2019). Such systems optimize water use, reduce insect infestations, and boost yields, contributing to improved soil conservation. Growing intercrops is an effective way of enhancing soil preservation and the sustainability of agricultural systems in Egypt. It strategically utilizes water and nutrient supplies, reduces pest infestations and diseases, enhances soil fertility and structure, and increases crop yield. Drought and soil erosion pose significant threats to the environment and agricultural production, especially in northwestern coastal areas of Egypt. In situ rainwater harvesting systems, which alter the micro-topography of soil through tilling techniques, may help retain runoff and improve land productivity. Trials conducted on sandy-loam soil demonstrated the significant effects of various tillage methods on soil bulk densities, water content by volume, soil runoff, soil loss, rainfall utilization, and winter grain yields. Among the systems evaluated, integrated ridge plowing and tank plowing showed the best performance in terms of water retention and crop productivity, reducing runoff by 55.4% and 40.3%, respectively, compared to conventional plowing. The efficiency of rainfall utilization has also improved, resulting in increased wheat productivity while ensuring soil sustainability (Salem et al., 2022). According to Rizk and Mikhail (1999), soil conservation practices—particularly the absence of plowing, the use of cover crops, and the incorporation of crop residues—significantly impact soil biological activity. Research in the governorate of Fayoum found that no-till practices favored greater densities of soil fauna taxa, especially herbivores like springtails and orthopterans, due to soil enriched by cover crops such as Lupinus termis and Trifolium alexandrinum. In contrast, traditional tillage methods have led to a decrease in soil diversity and biological activity. The findings confirm that sustainable agricultural methods can help maintain soil diversity and enhance ecosystem functions. Adopting no-till or reduced-till systems, coupled with organic amendments and crop management, is an effective way to increase soil fertility while maintaining long-term soil productivity. Such practices not only limit soil erosion and resource degradation but also improve water and nutrient use efficiencies, making farming more resilient to climatic challenges (Salama et al., 2021). The general application of these techniques, along with proper crop rotation management, may provide a lasting solution to the agroecological problems faced by Egyptian farmers.

The adoption of agroecological practices in soil management among dryland smallholders in North Africa is frequently impeded by various social challenges stemming from both individual and community-level dynamics (Khader, 2024). These farmers operate in ecologically fragile and socially complex environments where knowledge sharing, trust, and social networks play critical roles (Kmoch et al., 2018). Peer influence, reciprocal trust, and voluntary farmer networks have been identified as significant enablers of agroecological transitions. Indeed, in the Middle Atlas region (Morocco), farmers' participation in local cooperatives, including those focused on composting and crop diversification, has been shown to improve trust and mutual learning, facilitating the use of sustainable soil management techniques (Ghali et al., 2022). Conversely, in semi-arid regions of Tunisia, Khader (2024) revealed that the limited interaction between smallholders and extension agents has constrained the exchange of agroecological knowledge, thereby reducing farmers' confidence in adopting innovative practices.

Furthermore, gender, age, educational background, and personal motivation have been shown to influence perceptions and openness toward agroecology, thereby impacting a farmer's willingness to adopt sustainable alternatives (Palomo-Campesino et al., 2021). In this context, Souissi et al. (2024) reported that younger Tunisian farmers with secondary education are more likely to engage with agroecological networks than older generations relying on traditional monocropping. Similarly, Requier-Desjardins et al. (2024) revealed that many projects include awareness-raising, knowledge transfer, and farmer networks, and that educational level tends to be a significant factor in the willingness and ability to use agroecological practices. In the absence of robust social movements advocating for sustainable agriculture and food sovereignty, farmers may experience a lack of communal support and societal validation, hindering their transition away from conventional methods. Therefore, it is imperative to understand and strengthen social structures to promote the widespread adoption of agroecological soil management strategies (Khader, 2024; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018).

The adoption of agroecological practices is hindered by significant economic constraints, particularly in North Africa. The transition entails both perceived and real costs, including investments in new practices, temporary yield fluctuations, and changes in labor requirements. These factors can deter farmers who are already economically vulnerable (Polonio Punzano et al., 2021). In this sense, a study by Huebner (2023) revealed that in Egypt's Nile Delta, smallholders often hesitate to use organic amendments or integrate legume rotations because of high upfront costs and limited short-term profitability. Similar results were reported in Tunisia by Khader (2024), who noted that restricted access to credit and weak market incentives limit the scaling up of agroecological soil practices such as reduced tillage or cover cropping in the semi-arid regions of Tunisia.

The economic viability of agroecology must be demonstrated through evidence of increased productivity, improved soil fertility, and enhanced resilience to climate extremes to motivate adoption. However, constrained access to markets, credit systems, and financial incentives frequently impedes farmers' capacity to invest in and reap the benefits of agroecological methods. In many cases, economic success stories are under-documented or not adequately communicated to smallholders, reducing the visibility of agroecology as a financially sustainable option. Consequently, implementing targeted support mechanisms, financial training, and facilitating access to profitable markets is imperative to overcoming these economic impediments (Mekuria et al., 2022; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018). Moreover, the legitimacy of agroecology is often undermined by the lack of formal recognition in national agricultural strategies and insufficient integration into education and training programs (Sanderson Bellamy and Ioris, 2017). Farmers who participate in advisory committees and policymaking bodies tend to be better informed and more likely to adopt agroecological practices. However, opportunities for such participation remain limited. A more enabling policy landscape, characterized by supportive legislation, inclusive institutions, and targeted public investments, is essential to legitimizing and scaling up agroecological approaches in soil management (Akanmu et al., 2023; Schoonhoven and Runhaar, 2018).