Date palms have a long history of cultivation, dating back to 4,000 BC in Mesopotamia (Al-Karmadi and Okoh, 2024). Its ability to thrive in arid and semi-arid regions has made it central to the economy and cultural heritage of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) (Gros-Balthazard et al., 2021). The global cultivation of date palms covers approximately 1.3 million hectares, with significant concentrations in Asia, Africa, and, to a lesser extent, Europe and the Americas (Crops and Livestocl products, 2025). Date palm sap, extracted from Phoenix dactylifera and Phoenix sylvestris, is a naturally sweet liquid often referred to as “tamarind nectar” with diverse applications in beverages, culinary preparations, and traditional medicine (Alotaibi et al., 2023; Bakshi et al., 2020). Its significance extends beyond its use as a raw material for various products, including traditional beverages (Djemal et al., 2025), sugar (Jagannadha Rao et al., 2009; Tuturoong et al., 2024), and molasses (Al-Safy and Ali, 2023; Ray and Faculty, 2017), and its potential in bioethanol production (Van Nguyen et al., 2016).

The global beverage industry has faced increasing scrutiny owing to the association between certain products and chronic diseases. Meta-analyses have shown that high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with an increased risk of hypertension (12%), type 2 diabetes (26%), and cardiovascular disease (19%) (Zhang et al., 2024). Even fruit juices, which are often considered healthier alternatives, have shown mixed results in their correlation with the incidence of chronic diseases (Auerbach et al., 2018). Furthermore, sugar-sweetened beverages have been associated with hyperactivity disorders, and a meta-analysis has indicated a positive correlation between their consumption and the development of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Farsad-Naeimi et al., 2020). The adoption of artificial sweeteners as a mitigation strategy has not fully addressed these concerns. Epidemiological studies have suggested that they may promote cardiovascular complications and the development of type 2 diabetes (Schiano et al., 2021). This has led to increased interest in beverages derived from natural sources that are rich in bioactive compounds and potentially offer health benefits.

Palm saps, including those from date palms, have emerged as promising candidates for natural beverages because of their multifunctional composition (Sarma et al., 2022). Date palm sap is a rich reservoir of nutrients, including sugars, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and polyphenols. Its potential as a low-glycemic index food further enhances its appeal in the alternative beverage market. Despite the potential benefits and widespread cultivation of date palms, several key research gaps need to be addressed, such as the comprehensive characterization of the physicochemical properties and microbiological composition of date palm sap across different cultivars and regions, and the evaluation of the nutritional value and potential health benefits of date palm sap compared to other beverages. In addition to its practical applications, date palm sap is associated with public health concerns owing to its association with Nipah virus transmission (Islam et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2012). Therefore, there is a need to explore innovative processing methods to enhance the shelf life and safety of date palm sap while preserving its nutritional qualities.

This review summarizes existing research and recent developments on date palm sap, including its physicochemical properties, microbiological composition, nutritional value, traditional uses, and associated health risks. By addressing these aspects, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential of date palm sap as a sustainable and healthy alternative in the beverage industry.

Palm sap collection is a traditional practice of significant cultural, economic, and nutritional importance in many regions of the world. The process involves extracting sugary fluid from various species of palm trees, which is then used for direct consumption, fermentation, or further processing into products such as palm sugar and bioethanol (Sarma et al., 2022). The sap collection process is intricate and requires precise timing, skill, and appropriate equipment to maximize the yield while minimizing harm to the trees. The collection period of date palm sap generally covers 3 to 4 months (March–June), and during this time, a total sap yield of up to 500 L can be obtained (Barreveld, 1993). The conventional approach is based on obtaining palm sap by cutting trees. Vessels such as bamboo tubes, plastic bottles, and mud pots are suspended from the tree trunk or placed near the base (Khan et al., 2012; Nahar P. P. et al., 2014). Under the gravitational pull, sap flows into the containers and is collected. This method does not require specialized equipment; however, it has certain drawbacks, such as contamination of sap and irreversible destruction of palm trees (de Wit et al., 2014; Nahar et al., 2010). In mechanical pressing, palm yield is increased by shedding palm trees to increase the surface area. Higher sap outputs have been reported using smaller shredding sizes and extended processing times; however, the question of sustainability remains, as the method is destructive (Ezzatzadegan et al., 2021).

A more common and widely practiced method of collecting sap involves tapping date palm trees, which has been practiced for thousands of years. This method is still prevalent in many regions, including India and Southeast Asia, where it is used to collect sap for direct consumption and fermentation into products such as bioethanol (Nahar et al., 2010; Van Nguyen et al., 2016). Sap collection begins with the selection of mature and healthy date palms, usually between 5 and 10 years old. An experienced sap collector, known locally as a “tapper,” makes a deliberate incision below the crown. The goal is to stimulate sap flow while avoiding excessive damage that could compromise the long-term health of trees (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016b). Compared with other methods, tapping is sustainable, as there is no irreversible destruction of the tree, and sap production can continue throughout the entire life cycle of the tree. However, the need for skilled labor and lower yields render this method inefficient.

Another method involves cutting a tree at the top and letting the sap flow into containers placed below. Higher yields were observed compared to conventional methods, and the plant was preserved. Various types of cuts, such as forehead- and tongue-shaped cuts, are employed to collect sap. Sap is collected over a period of 2–3 days after each scraping, followed by a period of rest for 3–5 days. As the cut portion of the tree regenerates, this method is relatively sustainable. Protection from the Nipah virus is assured by covering the collection area and assembly with polyethylene, jute sticks, and bamboo (Hai et al., 2024). In Bangladesh, skilled personnel known as gachhis are responsible for collecting date palm sap. The bark of the tree is shaved on one side near the top and then allowed to dry for 7–14 days (Nahar et al., 2010; Nahar N. et al., 2014). This is followed by scraping and cutting the shaved trunk for sap drainage. A V-shaped cut, referred to as a forehead shape, is believed to resemble eyebrows. A small bamboo tube or piece of bark is sometimes used to direct sap into the collection vessel. Sap from approximately 10–15 trees is generally consolidated into larger containers to facilitate transportation (Nahar et al., 2010). A myriad of factors, including the tree's age, area of origin, variety, and tapping procedure, define the overall quality of the palm sap.

Sustainability is a major challenge in sap collection. Over-harvesting, improper cutting techniques, and tapping during unsuitable seasons can damage trees. In addition, pests, climate stress, and microbial contamination threaten both yield and quality. This is particularly concerning in regions such as Bangladesh, where traditional collection methods do not always prevent animal access (Ábrahám et al., 2024; Nahar et al., 2010). The lack of effective preservation techniques limits the marketability of palm sap, especially in urban areas where sap is often misconceived as an alcoholic drink. This challenge is compounded by the natural tendency of sap to ferment rapidly (Sarma et al., 2022). Promoting traditional knowledge alongside scientific innovation is essential for maintaining valuable cultural and economic resources (Ezzatzadegan et al., 2021).

Date palm sap is a complex natural exudate characterized by a rich composition of sugars, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Its physicochemical profile varies depending on factors such as cultivar, geographical origin, tapping season, and palm sex, which in turn dictate its potential applications and nutritional value. The primary components of date sap are sugars, with sucrose being the most abundant. For instance, sap from the Gabes region of Tunisia contains very high sucrose (186.8 g/L), followed by lower levels of glucose (13.0 g/L) and fructose (1.2 g/L) (Ben Thabet et al., 2010), which is significantly greater than the levels reported for coconut and nipa palm saps (Asghar et al., 2020; Ben Atitallah et al., 2021; Manzano et al., 2024). This positions it as a premier raw material for syrup and sugar production in the food industry. Table 1 provides a consolidated summary of the comparison of date palm sap with other commercially relevant sap-based sweeteners, such as coconut, nipa, and maple saps, as well as other tree saps, such as birch.

This sucrose-dominant profile is consistent across many studies (Ben Thabet et al., 2009a), although a striking seasonal variation exists; sucrose is the sole sugar detected in winter, whereas glucose and fructose appear in spring, coinciding with a period of higher total sugar content and lower acidity (Ziadi et al., 2014). This shift is attributed to increased invertase enzyme activity as the tapping period progresses, hydrolyzing sucrose into its monomeric units (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016b). The total soluble solids (TSS) typically range around 18.6% but are known to decrease over a prolonged tapping season because of plant stress (Ziadi et al., 2014). The pH is generally acidic, approximately 4.8, with stable titratable acidity (Ben Atitallah et al., 2021).

A critical and fascinating aspect of its composition is the divergence between male and female palms. Female cultivars generally yield more sap (190.31 L/plant vs. 140.42 L/plant for males) with a higher sucrose content, whereas male sap contains higher protein (5%), ash, total phenolic content (TPC), and a distinct amino acid and protein profile, including a unique 30 kDa protein band (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016b; Swaraz et al., 2019). Its protein content, although modest (0.2 μg/μl in the Deglet Nour cultivar), is comparable to that of coconut palm sap (0.1 μg/μl) (Ben Thabet et al., 2010). In addition to sugars, date sap is a source of minerals, notably potassium (501.1 mg/100 g dry matter) and magnesium (298.1 mg/100 g dry matter), along with phosphorous, sodium, calcium, and iron (Ben Atitallah et al., 2021), offering a different nutritional advantage compared to the very high sodium content found in nipa sap or the balanced mineral cocktail of maple syrup (Phetrit et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2014).

The functional food potential of date sap is underscored by its bioactivity. It exhibits significant antioxidant properties, with a DPPH radical inhibition of 47.64% and a TPC of 7.64 mg/100 ml (Ben Thabet et al., 2009a). This activity is cultivar-dependent, with the Thokar variety showing the highest capacity, followed by Khalet, Beser, and Ameri varieties (Abdennabi et al., 2017). While the antioxidant profile of date sap (e.g., ~47% DPPH inhibition) appears potent, direct quantitative comparison is challenging because of the varying methodologies across studies. However, its documented phenolic content and antimicrobial activity suggest a competitive bioactive profile against coconut and birch sap, although likely different from the well-characterized and unique polyphenol map of maple syrup (e.g., quebecol) (Boroduškis et al., 2017; González-Sarrías et al., 2012). These phenolic compounds are linked to potential health benefits, including antimicrobial (e.g., against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis) and antidiabetic effects. Furthermore, date sap demonstrates promising functional properties for food processing, such as excellent foaming capacity and stability, particularly in its native state rather than when reconstituted from a lyophilized powder (Ben Thabet et al., 2009a; Ziadi et al., 2011).

The microbial diversity of date palm sap is a critical factor influencing its quality, shelf life, and fermentation potential. Raw date palm sap provides a favorable environment for various bacterial species because of its high sugar content and slightly acidic pH (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016a,b). Culturomics and metagenomics have identified a rich microbial community in fresh, unfermented date palm sap (Djemal et al., 2025). They identified 250 bacterial and nine fungal species, including key fermentation species such as Zymomonasmobilis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The study also revealed 28 previously unreported bacterial and eight fungal species, highlighting the unexplored microbial diversity of date palm sap (Djemal et al., 2025).

Fermentation involves intricate interactions between lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast. These organisms can exist symbiotically, where yeast fermentation provides ethanol, which LAB can tolerate, and they continue to ferment lactic acid. Such mixed cultures can be intentionally used to develop products with complex sensory profiles. Microbiological analysis of date palm sap from Southern Tunisia identified high loads of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, coliforms, yeasts, and LAB (Ziadi et al., 2011). Ten LAB strains, including Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Enterococcus, and Bifidobacterium, have been isolated and characterized for their acidifying activity in palm sap, indicating their potential for use as starter cultures in fermentation processes (Ziadi et al., 2011). The presence of these microorganisms is crucial for the spontaneous fermentation of date palm sap, which leads to changes in pH and TSS (Ziadi et al., 2014), contributing to the sourness and preservation of traditional fermented products such as toddy (Aparnna et al., 2023).

A previous study also employed nanopore sequencing to identify bacterial species in raw date palm sap in Bangladesh. They observed two predominant fermentation pathways dominated by Leuconostoc or Lactococcus species alongside opportunistic human pathogens (Ábrahám et al., 2024). Species such as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus metabolize sugars into lactic acid, which reduces the pH of the sap, suppresses pathogenic growth, and imparts a characteristic sour flavor to fermented products such as toddy (Hossain et al., 2023). Yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are vital for the alcoholic fermentation process. They metabolize sap sugars into ethanol and CO₂, initiating the fermentation process. Dash et al. (2015) identified eight yeast strains, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia bessae, isolated from fermented date palm sap (toddy) in India, and evaluated their ethanol tolerance and bioethanol production capacity. Pichia besseyi showed the highest ethanol production capacity and tolerance, highlighting the potential of date palm sap as a source of natural yeasts for bioethanol production and contributing to sap fermentation, influencing flavor development through the production of volatile organic compounds (Dash et al., 2015). A study on the fermentation dynamics of naturally fermented palm beverages further supports this, showing that the fermentation process leads to changes in physicochemical properties, such as pH, sugar content, and bioactive compounds in khejur toddy (date palm sap beverage). The resulting toddy exhibited increased antioxidant activity and phenolic content compared to that of fresh sap (Das and Tamang, 2023).

Improper sap collection or storage may result in contamination with pathogenic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Staphylococcus aureus. These pathogens are typically introduced through contact with contaminated tools, containers, or water, posing a significant risk of foodborne illness (Ábrahám et al., 2024; Luby et al., 2009). Although less frequently reported, the potential for viral contamination through unsanitary handling, especially with viruses such as norovirus and rotavirus, exists and can contribute to gastrointestinal illnesses (Gurley et al., 2017).

Date palm sap possesses significant nutritional value, contributing to its use as a food and beverage source and offering potential health benefits. A comparative study of different palm saps revealed that fresh date sap contains the highest levels of total sugars, calcium, iron, zinc, copper, phosphorus, and niacin (Barh and Mazumdar, 2008). The amino acid profiles of date palm sap show variations in essential amino acids depending on collection time, further enhancing its nutritional value (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016b). Interestingly, fermentation increased thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin contents without significantly altering the micronutrient levels.

The health benefits of date palm sap are largely attributed to its rich composition of bioactive compounds, particularly polyphenols (Al-Alawi et al., 2017; Kharal et al., 2023). Figure 1 illustrates some of the bioactive compounds and their associated health benefits. polyphenols commonly reported in date palms include gallic, sinapic, caffeic, and gallic acids, quercetin, catechin, and epicatechin. These compounds exhibit antidiabetic activity by inhibiting the formation of human Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (hIAPP), a potent causative factor for type-2 diabetes (Chaari et al., 2020). These polyphenols are also likely to be present in sap, conferring diverse health benefits to this natural drink. Table 2 provides an overview of the various bioactive compounds present in different types of palm sap.

Research studies have shown that date palm sap obtained from four Tunisian varieties inhibited the activity of amylase, which is responsible for carbohydrate digestion, suggesting its potential application in the management of diabetes mellitus (Abdennabi et al., 2017). Furthermore, date palm sap has been investigated for its ability to combat bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in rats. The administration of date palm sap reversed the effects of bleomycin-induced lipid peroxidation and restored normal levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MAD), and catalase (CAT). Additionally, improvements in morphological lesions have been observed, indicating the potential application of date palm sap in lung cancer treatment (Bahri et al., 2019; Hai et al., 2024).

The nutritional and health benefits of date palm sap extend to its potential use during childbirth. Labor pain is often accompanied by anxiety and fear, which can stimulate the secretion of cortisol and catecholamines, leading to incomplete uterine contractions and prolonged labor. Prolonged labor can result in fatigue, maternal mortality, fetal complications, and, in some cases, labor hypoxia (Hekmatzadeh et al., 2014). Providing laboring mothers with food and energy can fulfill their immediate needs, with an energy requirement of 50–100 calories per hour (Aghdam et al., 2015). The administration of oral fluids during active labor can help relieve pain, reduce anxiety, and provide immediate energy to the mother. In a double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial, 15 ml of date palm sap (60 kcal) was administered to 60 low-risk primiparous women per hour of active labor, whereas the control group received 15 ml of sugar solution. The results revealed a reduction in the active phase of labor compared to the control state, with a significant difference observed in the mean values for active labor. However, no effects were observed on pain and anxiety levels (Rahmani et al., 2023). Similar results have been reported for honey-date syrup and saffron syrup with date sugar (Ghaderi et al., 2019; Mohammadierad et al., 2018). These studies collectively establish that palm sap is not only a sustainable alternative in the beverage market, but also a drink with significant functional and health benefits.

Date palm sap has traditionally been utilized in various ways across different cultures and communities in regions ranging from North Africa to the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The sap can be consumed fresh, fermented into an alcoholic beverage known as arrack or palm wine, or processed into a sweet syrup known as date palm syrup or jaggery. In Southern Tunisia, a fresh juice called “Legmi” is widely produced and consumed (Makhlouf-Gafsi et al., 2016b; Ziadi et al., 2011). In West Bengal, India, the tapping and processing of sap from silver date palm (Phoenix sylvestris) is an age-old practice with considerable economic importance (Bakshi et al., 2020). Date palm sap contributes significantly to family income, ranging from 9.4% to 28% among different categories of farmers (Bakshi et al., 2020). This study also highlighted gender roles in sap processing, with males primarily involved in tapping, whereas both sexes participated in processing and palm maintenance (Bakshi et al., 2020). In Bangladesh, date palm sap is widely consumed as a traditional drink (Chakraborty et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2016; Jackson et al., 2024), and its consumption habits are associated with knowledge of the Nipah virus infection. A study on the date palm molasses (Gur) industry in India further illustrated the socioeconomic importance of date palm sap as a raw material for traditional products (Ray and Faculty, 2017), which found that entrepreneurs in the industry reported sufficient profits, emphasizing the economic significance of traditional date palm processing.

In Morocco, traditional knowledge of date juice processing, which is linked to date palm sap, is being studied to understand its cultural and medicinal significance (Houssni et al., 2024). This revealed the use of numerous aromatic and medicinal plants in the preparation of date juices, highlighting the long-standing cultural practices associated with date palm products. Another study on the socioeconomic and traditional medicinal uses of wild date palms in India highlights the medicinal uses of both raw sap and tari (fermented sap), particularly in the Northeastern Plains Zone (Saran et al., 2018), which emphasizes the economic profitability of raw sap and tari production for small and marginal farmers.

Raw date palm sap consumption has been strongly linked to Nipah virus infection, primarily in Bangladesh (Chakraborty et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2016). This association has raised significant concerns among public health officials and researchers, prompting extensive investigations into the pathology and transmission dynamics of this deadly virus. Fruit bats (Pteropus giganteus), which act as the natural reservoirs of the virus, play a crucial role in contaminating sap with saliva or urine (Epstein et al., 2020; Islam et al., 2023). This contamination pathway has been extensively studied, revealing a complex interplay between human behavior, ecological factors, and viral transmission.

The highly pathogenic nature of Nipah virus, which can cause severe respiratory and neurological diseases in both humans and animals, has intensified research efforts to understand its epidemiology and develop effective prevention strategies. Its ability to cross species barriers and cause devastating outbreaks has made it the subject of intense scientific scrutiny. Multiple studies have provided compelling evidence supporting the association between raw date palm sap consumption and Nipah virus infection (Ang et al., 2018; de Wit et al., 2014). A case-control study conducted during an encephalitis outbreak in Bangladesh reported a significant odds ratio of 7.9, strongly indicating the role of raw sap consumption in disease transmission (Epstein et al., 2020; Luby et al., 2009).

Further research has revealed that the epidemiology of Nipah virus in Bangladesh has revealed fermented date palm sap (tari) as another potential transmission route during outbreaks (Chakraborty et al., 2016). Researchers have identified 18 clusters of Nipah virus infections associated with tari consumption, indicating its potential to trigger localized outbreaks within communities (Islam et al., 2016; Parveen et al., 2016). The health risks associated with Nipah virus infection are severe and can be life-threatening. In some instances, people who handle date sap have developed symptoms of Nipah virus infection, including fever, headache, and encephalitis. These symptoms can progress rapidly and lead to death in severe cases. The presence of bat excreta in tari production pots further indicates a potential pathway for virus transmission, highlighting the need for improved hygiene practices during sap collection and processing (Epstein et al., 2020; Islam et al., 2016).

Experimental evidence has further solidified the link between date palm sap consumption and Nipah virus transmission. A study using Syrian hamsters demonstrated that drinking contaminated sap led to neurological disease, mirroring the symptoms observed in human cases (de Wit et al., 2014). This animal model provides valuable insights into the pathogenesis of Nipah virus infection and confirms the potential of sap to serve as a vehicle for virus transmission.

Environmental factors play a significant role in the transmission dynamics of the Nipah virus. Studies have suggested that certain conditions, such as the proximity of bat roosts to sap collection sites, increase the likelihood of contamination. Additionally, warmer temperatures and increased humidity may facilitate the survival of the virus in the environment, thereby enhancing the risk of transmission during sap collection. Interestingly, weather patterns have been found to influence date palm sap consumption habits, potentially affecting the risk of Nipah virus transmission. Jackson et al. (2024) investigated the impact of weather patterns on household date palm sap consumption in Bangladesh, finding a significant association between lower minimum temperatures and precipitation with increased sap consumption during the harvesting season. This relationship highlights a potential risk of Nipah virus spillover during colder and drier winters, as increased consumption during these periods may lead to higher exposure rates.

Traditional sap collection and processing practices may inadvertently increase the risk of disease transmission. A study on raw sap consumption habits and their linkage with knowledge of Nipah virus in Bangladesh demonstrated low awareness among respondents regarding the risks associated with drinking raw date palm sap (Gurley et al., 2017; Nahar et al., 2015). This lack of awareness emphasizes the need for targeted education and outreach programs to inform communities about the dangers of consuming raw or fermented sap in Nipah virus-endemic areas. Addressing the threat of Nipah virus requires effective communication and preventive measures. The challenges of communicating prevention strategies for Nipah virus transmission during an outbreak in Bangladesh emphasized the need for culturally sensitive communication strategies (Parveen et al., 2016). Public health officials must tailor their messages to resonate with local communities, considering traditional practices and beliefs surrounding date palm sap consumption.

One promising intervention that has shown effectiveness in reducing the risk of Nipah virus transmission is the use of bamboo skirts by fruit collectors. These simple yet ingenious devices have been shown to effectively prevent bats from accessing date palm sap, thereby reducing the risk of contamination (Nahar N. et al., 2014). In a study conducted in Bangladesh, bamboo skirts, along with other materials such as dhoincha and polythene, significantly reduced bat contact with sap from 83% to 2% compared to control trees without any intervention (Khan et al., 2012). This dramatic reduction in bat access to sap demonstrates the potential of physical barriers as a practical and cost-effective preventive strategy. The promotion of bamboo skirts among sap harvesters (gachhis) yielded encouraging results. A high percentage of harvesters adopted the use of these barriers, with 83% in high-intensity intervention areas and 65% in low-intensity areas using skirts at least once during the sap collection season (Nahar N. et al., 2014). This finding highlights the importance of sustained and comprehensive outreach programs to achieve widespread adoption of preventive measures. The complex interplay of ecological, behavioral, and environmental factors necessitates a multifaceted approach to prevention and control. By combining targeted interventions, such as the use of bamboo skirts, with comprehensive education and communication strategies, it may be possible to reduce the risk of Nipah virus transmission while preserving the important cultural practices surrounding palm sap consumption.

The processing and preservation of date palm sap involves a variety of techniques aimed at maintaining its quality and extending its shelf life. Date palm sap, which is known for its nutritional value, is highly susceptible to fermentation, which poses a challenge for its preservation. Various chemical, biological, and mechanical preservation techniques have been explored to overcome these challenges. The effectiveness of these methods depends on an understanding of the biochemical composition and fermentation chemistry of the sap, as well as the specific requirements of the end product. In addition to novel products, innovative processing and preservation techniques are crucial. Figure 2 summarizes various potential processing methods of date palm sap.

Date palm sap has demonstrated potential for various applications beyond its traditional use as a beverage and raw material for sugar and molasses production. These applications span across agriculture, aquaculture, bioplastics, and biofuel industries. Researchers have isolated yeast strains (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) from date palm sap to create bioinoculants for wheat crops. These bioinoculants significantly improved crop quality by increasing chlorophyll, protein, and indole acetic acid content in wheat, as well as enhancing soil humus content (Ambawade et al., 2023). Palm sap sugar has shown positive effects on feed efficiency and growth indices when used in aquafeeds for giant gouramis (Azrita et al., 2023). Date palm sap is a biorenewable source of succinic acid, a precursor of various commodities and chemicals. A study investigating the production of succinic acid from date palm syrup (derived from sap) and palm fronds found that date juice produced 20.6 g/L succinic acid, highlighting its potential for bioplastic production (Shalsh et al., 2024).

Date palm sap has emerged as a potential feedstock for bioethanol production because of its high sugar content and widespread availability. For instance, fed-batch fermentation of date palm sap using S. cerevisiae X19G2 yielded an ethanol concentration of 86.8 ± 0.35 g/L, corresponding to 0.48 ± 0.03 g/g sugar and a productivity of 1.49 ± 0.11 g/L/h. The minimum bioethanol production potential was estimated to be 11,000 L per hectare of trees (Ben Atitallah et al., 2021). Whereas, an earlier study using Wickerhamomyces anomalus X19 achieved ethanol production of 61.51 g/L and 73.12 g/L in batch and fed-batch mode fermentations, respectively, which corresponds to ethanol yields of 0.41 g/g and 0.46 g/g sugar consumed (Ben Atitallah et al., 2020). Furthermore, wild date palm (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.) The sap fermentation by S. cerevisiae yielded 0.323 g/g ethanol with 63.40% ethanol conversion efficiency after 60 h. In this study, an estimated potential yield of 7,774 L/ha was reported, surpassing the yields from nipa palm sap, sugarcane juice, and sugar beet (Swaraz et al., 2019).

Despite the existing research on date palm sap, several knowledge gaps persist. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the complex microbial communities and their roles in date palm sap fermentation (Djemal et al., 2025). Further studies are needed to determine the long-term effects of date palm sap consumption, particularly its potential health benefits and risks (Khan et al., 2012; Nahar et al., 2015). Additional research is required to develop efficient and cost-effective methods for processing and preserving date palm sap to extend its shelf life and maintain its quality (Choudhury, 2023; Tuturoong et al., 2024). The development of culturally appropriate and effective communication strategies to address the health risks associated with raw date palm sap consumption is essential (Parveen et al., 2016). Further research should focus on developing sustainable agricultural practices to enhance date palm productivity and reduce the environmental impact of its cultivation (Alotaibi et al., 2023). Advanced non-thermal technologies, such as pulsed electric fields, high-pressure processing, cold plasma, and ultrasound, can be explored to inactivate spoilage microorganisms while maintaining product quality. These methods offer advantages over traditional heat treatments by preserving sensory attributes and nutritional value (Roobab et al., 2018). However, no research has been conducted on the emerging technologies utilized for date palm processing. Finally, more studies are needed to explore the potential of date palm sap for various applications, such as bioethanol production and bioplastic manufacturing (Ahmad et al., 2021; Shalsh et al., 2024). A deeper understanding of the genetic diversity within date palm cultivars and their relationship with pest resistance can inform sustainable agricultural practices.

Date palm sap is a nutritionally rich substance with significant potential as a functional food ingredient and natural sweetener. Its composition, influenced by factors such as tapping period and palm variety, includes high levels of sugars, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, and bioactive compounds. Sap harbors a diverse microbial community that impacts its quality and fermentation outcomes. Traditional uses include fresh consumption, fermented beverages, and sugar production, which are of socioeconomic importance in many regions. However, raw sap consumption poses health risks, particularly Nipah virus transmission from fruit bats. Innovative approaches for processing and preservation are being explored to extend the shelf life while maintaining nutritional quality. The sap also shows promise as a feedstock for bio-based products. Further research is needed to optimize processing techniques, characterize sap composition, evaluate long-term health effects, develop risk communication strategies, and explore novel applications. A multidisciplinary approach integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific methods is crucial for realizing the full potential of date palm sap, while addressing safety concerns and ensuring sustainable production.