Ongoing environmental crises have emphasized the need to integrate Indigenous and local knowledge systems alongside scientific approaches in sustainability policies. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is developing a holistic governance framework in which different types of knowledge are equally valued and recommends the inclusion of traditional knowledge systems in decision-making processes (IPBES, 2019). This approach corresponds to the “Multiple Evidence Base” conceptualized by Tengö et al. (2014). The approach is based on the complementary evaluation of scientific knowledge and Indigenous and local knowledge systems. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) refers to the body of knowledge, beliefs, and practices that are transmitted across generations, rooted in long-term human–nature relationships, and shaped through culturally embedded and practice-based processes (Berkes, 1993, 2008).

In line with this conceptual framework, studies on TEK have been steadily increasing both globally and in Türkiye. TEK encompasses a multilayered structure that includes ecological observation, ethnoveterinary practices, plant knowledge, animal behavior, and climate cycles (Berkes, 2008). Over the past four decades, TEK-focused research has particularly flourished in regions such as Latin America, Canada, Australia, and Africa, where studies have documented the sustainable human–nature relationships of traditional communities and contributed significantly to global policy-making processes (Mistry and Berardi, 2016). In Türkiye, however, TEK is a relatively new concept in scholarly discourse, with emerging studies in the fields of folklore, environmental anthropology, rural development, and nature conservation (Büyükşahin and Güneş, 2016; Karakaya, 2016; Özdemir, 2018; Yolcu, 2018, 2024; Yolcu and Aça, 2019). In Türkiye, scholarly engagement with TEK has expanded in recent years, yet the field is still in its formative stages.

Yörük communities, with a presence in Anatolia spanning over a thousand years, are among the most prominent bearers of TEK in Türkiye.

The term “Yörük” refers to seasonally mobile communities descended from the Oghuz-Turkmen tribes (Eröz, 1991; Matsubara, 2022). The name derives from the verb “yürümek” (to walk), reflecting their transhumant pastoralism (Halaçoğlu, 2009). Since the 11th century, Yörüks have inhabited Anatolia, maintaining a way of life closely aligned with natural cycles. Through their summer and winter pasture (yayla-kışlak) transhumance system, they sustained their livelihoods while also preserving ecological balance (Doğan and Doğan, 2004; Işık, 2006; Ertürk and Şanlı, 2018; Göçer, 2023; Kıvrak, 2014, 2017). Yörüks, characterized as transhumant pastoral communities who spend summers in highland pastures and winters in milder lowland areas (Ak, 2022), primarily engage in livestock breeding, live in goat-hair tents, and practice limited agriculture in their wintering grounds (Ekentok, 2022). This agro-pastoral model represents a flexible and resilient livelihood system.

Cultural elements such as the camel, once central to Yörük identity and transportation, have declined with the rise of motorized vehicles and state-enforced sedentarization policies (Okca and Genç, 2017). Nevertheless, Yörük life represents not merely an economic production model but a nature-sensitive lifestyle marked by minimal environmental intervention, rotational grazing, and protection of water sources and biodiversity. Yörük tribes determined the timing of their seasonal migrations based on the fodder needs of animals, the condition of vegetation, and natural signs (Johansen, 2005). In this system, which embodies the direct application of TEK, practices such as feeding medicinal herbs to sick animals and interpreting natural changes through animal behavior exemplify the deeply embedded, experiential knowledge maintained through daily life (Yolcu and Aça, 2019). Yörüks’ knowledge of medicinal plants (Acır, 2020), migratory routes, pasture management, and livestock grazing calendars are still considered components of indigenous knowledge systems (Tolunay et al., 2018).

The transhumant pastoral lifestyle of the Yörüks has undergone various transformations throughout history. Policies such as the settlement campaigns of the Ottoman Empire, the centralization efforts following the Tanzimat period, and the land distribution strategies implemented during the early Republic period accelerated the transition of Yörüks from nomadism to sedentarism (Tuztaş Horzumlu, 2014; Beşirli and Erdal, 2008). The Settlement Law enacted in 1934 was perceived by Yörüks as a mandate for sedentarization (Matsubara, 2022).

During this process, agriculture gradually expanded in both scope and significance. While some communities retained elements of transhumant livestock production, others increasingly shifted toward settled farming, particularly in fertile lowland regions. From the 1950s onward, with the rise of rural development projects and the expansion of irrigated agriculture, pastoralism in regions like Antalya gave way to farming, and transhumant pastoral lifeways was reduced to a symbolic level (Kaştan and Kaştan, 2009; Çelik, 2006). Harsh policies were implemented to enforce sedentarization, while broader socioeconomic changes accelerated this process. Mechanization of agriculture, the enactment of forestry laws, and the rapid conversion of large pasturelands to farmland led to the shrinkage of grazing areas and the imposition of strict rules on pasture use (Matsubara, 2022). This shift also contributed to the gradual erosion of local ecological knowledge and land-use practices that had historically complemented the Yörük transhumance system.

Despite these transformations, only a small number of Yörük communities continue to preserve key elements of their traditional knowledge systems, sustaining a way of life rooted in the cyclical and sustainable use of natural resources. However, at present, the number of communities still practicing this lifestyle is decreasing, and those who remain have become increasingly vulnerable. In particular, small Yörük communities continue to exist in the Taurus Mountains of the Mediterranean Region (Güç, 2010) and the mountainous areas of Western Anatolia. However, the transmission of this knowledge system is increasingly hindered by factors such as urbanization, restrictions on highland pastures, compulsory education, and tourism pressures (Durukan and Gülel, 2020).

This local fragility must also be viewed in a global context: according to the UNGA (2022), rangelands cover more than half of the Earth’s land surface and are increasingly threatened by desertification and land degradation. In this framework, TEK is recognized as a critical resource for sustaining rangeland ecosystems, conserving biodiversity, and supporting resilient agricultural systems (Harunoğulları and Polat, 2018). Nevertheless, the existing literature on TEK of the Yörüks remains largely descriptive and culture-oriented, with limited functional analysis of its contributions to ecosystem services, particularly in relation to water regulation, soil fertility, and biodiversity.

Recent international frameworks, including UNESCO (2019) recognition of transhumance as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity and the UN General Assembly’s designation of 2026 as the International Year of Pastoralism and Pastoralists, emphasize the global significance of pastoral systems.

The research aims to contribute both to the conservation of traditional knowledge systems and the strengthening of sustainable agriculture and nature conservation policies. Its primary goal is to examine the TEK system developed by transhumant pastoral communities over generations, and to analyze its potential in promoting ecological sustainability, agricultural resilience, and cultural heritage conservation. Using the Yörük community as a case study, the analysis explores how nature-integrated lifeways can be embedded into contemporary environmental policies. By examining the contributions of transhumant production systems to ecosystem services such as water, soil, and biodiversity, the findings demonstrate their relevance to the Sustainable Development Goals.

The Yörüks have long sustained a transhumant pastoral system in Anatolia, contributing significantly to ecological sustainability through livestock herding and limited agricultural production. Practices such as the transhumance system, goat-hair tents, and livestock management models have supported the conservation of natural resources. However, modernization, urbanization dynamics, and regulatory frameworks have increasingly constrained these practices. Since the 1950s, the transition of Yörük communities to a sedentary lifestyle has accelerated, while the opening of highland pastures to permanent settlement and the imposition of grazing bans have placed significant restrictions on transhumant pastoralism. Table 1 provides an integrated overview of this long-term trajectory, outlining the socio-economic transformation of Yörük communities, the evolution of their ecological practices, and the external factors that have shaped these changes across a thousand-year historical continuum.

Although the Yörüks’ economic structure was traditionally based on livestock breeding, it has gradually diversified into a broader range of livelihood strategies. Small ruminant husbandry remains central, accounting for approximately 60% of total income sources. Goat and sheep herding enable the production of dairy goods such as milk, yogurt, cheese, and butter. Agriculture (20%) has gained importance, especially among sedentary households, supporting livestock through grain, vegetable, and fruit cultivation. Handicrafts (10%), including goat-hair tents, saddlebags, and kilims, not only preserve cultural heritage but also provide economic benefits. Trade (5%), together with other activities (5%) such as seasonal labor, rural tourism, and beekeeping, serves as a complementary income (Figure 3). This economic system represents a flexible structure that reflects the Yörüks’ sustainable relationship with their natural environment. While contemporary Yörük households pursue diversified livelihood strategies, including agriculture, trade, and tourism, their traditional knowledge systems and cultural identity remain fundamentally grounded in transhumant pastoralism.

The traditional lifestyle of the Yörüks, grounded in their close and enduring relationship with nature, makes substantial contributions to all four core categories of ecosystem services.

In terms of provisioning services, Yörüks directly utilize natural resources to produce animal-based foods such as milk, yogurt, butter, cottage cheese, cheese, and dried meat, thereby enhancing food security. Handcrafted items made from goat hair, tents, saddlebags, rugs, and mats serve both shelter and everyday practical needs. The use of wild plants for firewood and medicinal purposes also reflects long-standing practices of folk medicine and veterinary care.

Regarding regulating services, the seasonal transhumance between highland and lowland pastures enables the balanced use of water resources. Grazing practices designed to avoid overgrazing help prevent soil erosion. Naturally fertilized livestock contributes to improved soil health, and the overall production process supports the reduction of carbon emissions. Folk meteorology allows for the early anticipation of seasonal weather changes, playing a critical role in migration decisions.

Within supporting services, animal manure enhances soil fertility and microbial activity when mixed into the land. Moreover, as transhumant herds graze across different ecological zones, plant seeds consumed during grazing pass through the animals’ digestive systems and are dispersed to new areas, aiding in plant propagation and the preservation of biodiversity. Migration routes that traverse multiple ecological zones also strengthen habitat connectivity. Observations of nature and interactions with the environment serve as effective ecological indicators for detecting early signs of environmental change.

In terms of cultural services, the Yörük way of life encompasses more than economic survival; it is a bearer of cultural meaning. The black tents, traditional garments, migration rituals, and music represent expressions of cultural identity. Nature-based knowledge passed orally from one generation to the next, along with traditional crafts, helps safeguard cultural heritage and also offers significant potential for nature-based rural tourism (Figure 4). This holistic system illustrates that the Yörüks represent not just a historical tradition but also a viable model for advancing present-day ecological sustainability goals.

Figure 5 illustrates how the core livelihood practices of the Yörüks, such as migration, transhumance, traditional production, and ecological methods, are being affected by increasing climate pressures. This analysis, supported by field observations and qualitative data, offers a concrete framework for understanding the growing vulnerabilities in Yörük culture. The assessment considers not only potential future risks but also problems already being observed in practice. In doing so, it provides a foundation for developing practical recommendations to strengthen current adaptive capacities.

Building upon this analysis, Figure 5 details the specific climate-related impacts on Yörük practices and identifies corresponding local adaptation strategies.

Climate change is imposing multiple pressures on Yörük practices.

The effects of climate change on Yörük practices were analyzed along two dimensions. While Figure 5 explores the specific impacts of climatic variables on traditional practices and outlines local adaptation strategies, Figure 6 presents a general risk assessment matrix based on a threat-based scoring model. This dual-layered approach integrates practice-based evaluation with threat-based risk analysis.

According to the risk assessment results (Figure 6), the depletion of water resources and loss of pastureland emerged as the most critical threats, scoring the highest risk levels. These two factors directly jeopardize pastoralism, the core of Yörük livelihood systems. Moreover, climate-induced extreme weather events are creating physical obstacles along migration routes and disrupting traditional planning calendars. The weakening of intergenerational knowledge transfer places cultural sustainability at risk, while rural youth migration adds uncertainty to the continuity of this heritage.

These risk analysis findings are essential not only for understanding the current situation but also for anticipating future vulnerabilities. Holistic strategies involving water resource management, cultural memory preservation, and local participation-based policymaking are strongly recommended.

The TEK of the Yörüks presents a more sustainable alternative to conventional agriculture. Transhumance and nature-aligned resource management support biodiversity, soil health, and climate resilience, aligning with global sustainability agendas. Figure 7 contrasts these practices with modern agricultural systems, underscoring their adaptive value for food security and rural development. However, modernization processes and policy constraints pose significant threats to the future of Yörük culture and knowledge systems. Therefore, the development of sustainable agricultural policies and the integration of Yörük ecological knowledge into contemporary agriculture have become critical necessities.

The black tent, a fundamental element of the transhumant pastoral lifestyle, is traditionally constructed from natural materials and symbolizes both climate resilience and cultural identity. Today, however, the number of Yörük communities that continue this traditional lifestyle in the Central Taurus Mountains has significantly declined. Pack animals such as camels and horses have largely been replaced by tractors and motor vehicles (Figure 8). As a result, black tents are now more often preserved as heritage symbols than used in daily life.

Access to water has also become a major issue due to climate change and the decreasing availability of natural springs. In highland pastures without direct access, water is transported using mobile tanks (Figure 9). Small ruminants are often taken to rented grazing lands located 10–15 kilometers away, with fees determined according to the number of animals.

The Central Taurus offers a unique setting where Mediterranean and continental climatic transitions shape pastoral practices in distinctive ways. Here, a particular form of Yörük transhumance pastoralism has evolved, with ecological contrasts influencing grazing strategies, migration distances, and resource-use patterns (Figures 8, 9). This illustrates the role of local climatic variability in shaping Yörük adaptive capacity.

The transhumance routes of the Yörüks have historically followed the valleys of rivers draining the Taurus Mountains, structured along lower, middle, and upper courses. Since water sources are distributed along these corridors, these routes have largely been preserved over centuries. However, newly constructed mountain and forest roads have recently facilitated access to highland pastures, causing traditional routes, once defined by natural water availability, to overlap with modern roads. In response, Yörük communities have increasingly diverted water from natural springs to roadside locations, supported by the construction of fountains and troughs.

In recent years, Yörük tents have also been repurposed for tourism, reflecting a shift toward alternative livelihoods. Families now use them in highland areas to host visitors, integrating cultural heritage with eco-tourism initiatives (Figure 10). Younger generations, who possess expertise in navigating mountain landscapes, are increasingly employed as guides and staff in these activities. While these practices provide supplementary income, they also contribute to shifting labor away from traditional pastoralism. Families generally express a preference for agro-ecotourism models that are small-scale, participatory, and respectful of local values.

Yörük livestock practices, grounded in the transhumance cycle between summer highlands and winter pastures, ensure the continuity of food production while enabling the balanced use of natural resources. Small-scale ruminant farming makes these systems climate-adaptive, cost-efficient, and rooted in local knowledge, directly contributing to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). Within a self-sufficient production cycle, Yörüks have traditionally produced essential foods such as milk, yogurt, cheese, and butter, while also supporting local economies.

Seasonal migration reduces overgrazing, natural fertilizers maintain soil fertility, and the use of local seeds supports biodiversity, thereby contributing to SDG 15 (Life on Land). In addition, these low-carbon, adaptive practices offer significant potential for SDG 13 (Climate Action).

TEK of Yörüks extends far beyond heritage value: it represents a strategic knowledge system capable of informing sustainable rural development, food security, and ecosystem-based climate adaptation. Yet, its visibility remains limited, requiring stronger institutional recognition and support.

TEK, rooted in long-term human–nature interactions, contributes to ecosystem management, climate adaptation, and sustainable resource use (Berkes, 2008; Folke et al., 2010). Beyond its cultural value, it also provides forward-looking solutions by enhancing local capacities to address ecological challenges (Berkes, 2008; IPBES, 2019). The ecological strategies of the Yörüks are consistent with Nature-based Solutions (NbS), which emphasize the role of local knowledge in ecosystem resilience, biodiversity conservation, and climate adaptation (Dubey et al., 2021). Yet, the sustainability of this system depends on intergenerational transmission (Yolcu and Aça, 2019), which has weakened in recent decades and now threatens cultural continuity.

The IPBES Global Assessment emphasizes that local knowledge systems are essential not only for cultural continuity but also for their role in biodiversity conservation. The experience of communities such as the Yörüks is therefore strategically important for informing both historical understanding and present-day policy-making (IPBES, 2019; Sharifian et al., 2022). Pastoralism, plays a central role in maintaining ecosystem services (Nori and Farinella, 2020), and Yörük practices such as rotational grazing and seasonal migration clearly demonstrate this contribution.

Historically, transhumant pastoralism has enabled the use of ecologically marginal regions such as steppes and mountains, transforming them into productive landscapes through highland–lowland migration cycles (Aşk, 1987; Matsubara, 2022). This system has ensured sustainable use of rangelands and minimized overgrazing. The adaptive strategies of Yörüks parallel those of other pastoralist groups, such as the Kazakhs, Berbers, and Mongols, who also developed environmentally attuned production systems that support carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and ecosystem services (Fernandez-Gimenez, 2000; Jenet et al., 2016; Mistry and Berardi, 2016; Drees et al., 2022). In the Himalayas and Hindu Kush, similar systems have enhanced agricultural resilience (Ahmad et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2025; Peter et al., 2024).

In Türkiye, TEK of Yörüks continues to survive, particularly in the Mediterranean and Aladağlar regions, where animal husbandry and small-scale agriculture remain embedded in natural processes (Güç, 2010). Transhumance serves economic, social, and ecological purposes, reinforcing solidarity, cultural identity, and environmental adaptation (Ak, 2022; Daşçı and Çomaklı, 2006; Koc et al., 2008; Reid et al., 2014; Samakov and Foggin, 2022; Somuncu, 2005). However, population decline, sedentarization, and modernization have disrupted knowledge transfer and weakened ecological strategies (Tunçdilek, 1964, 1977; Dal and Gönençgil, 2018; Uslu, 2020; Uslu and Köküs, 2020). Modernization, rural development policies, and urbanization have further exacerbated this fragility (Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi, 2018; Görgülü, 2023). Restricted access to water and pasture degradation now represents the most critical vulnerabilities, as identified through field-based risk assessments.

Yörük culture constitutes not only an economic system but also a knowledge framework enriched with symbolic, ritualistic, and spatial meanings (Kıvrak, 2014; Genç and Koyuncu Okca, 2017). Elements such as black tents, goat-hair weavings, migration route observations, medicinal plant knowledge, and animal health strategies form the cultural memory of the Yörüks’ relationship with nature (Johansen, 2005; Işık, 2006). For instance, migration timing is determined through intuitive knowledge based on natural indicators (Demir and Öz, 2019; Küçükaydın, 2021; Kıvrak, 2017). These practices should not be seen as isolated traditions but as integral components of TEK that sustain ecological strategies and ecosystem services.

This system represents both a cultural framework and an environmentally sustainable mode of production. Pastoral practices contribute to ecosystem dynamics, including processes such as seed dispersal (Kıvrak, 2017). However, formal grazing restrictions (Resmî Gazete, 2012; Resmî Gazete, 2020), the shrinking of grazing lands, and the drying of water sources present major threats to the continuity of this system.

Despite these challenges, traditional woven products, mobile shelters, and environmentally friendly production practices represent tangible reflections of both economic and cultural sustainability (Ertürk and Şanlı, 2018; Özden and Atmiş, 2006; Genç, 2020). Since the rise of the modern nation-state, transhumant pastoral practices have been increasingly restricted, leading to the disruption of knowledge transmission (Matsubara, 2022; Sharifian et al., 2022). This transformation has especially affected younger generations, diminishing their connection to transhumant pastoral life and weakening cultural memory.

The Yörük population engaged in transhumant pastoralism, estimated at around 100,000 in 1965, has since declined dramatically (Doğan and Doğan, 2004; Beşirli and Erdal, 2008; Şenesen, 2011; Göçer, 2023), with over 90% transitioning to a sedentary lifestyle (Matsubara, 2022). This shift signifies not only the loss of a way of life but also the erosion of the knowledge system that underpins TEK. In response, strategies such as cooperativism, cultural branding, and community-based ecotourism have emerged as potential pathways to support both cultural continuity and ecological sustainability (Eröz, 1991; Özen and Direk, 2023). Moreover, the installation of traditional tents for tourism in the Taurus Mountains presents hopeful potential for cultural promotion.

European experiences provide a useful comparative framework. Initiatives such as eco-museums, UNESCO’s recognition of agro-pastoral cultural landscapes, and EU agro-environmental subsidies (e.g., HNV farming) have facilitated the revival of pastoral systems in countries like France, Spain, and Italy (Nori and Scoones, 2019; Nori and Farinella, 2020). By contrast, Yörük transhumance in Türkiye, despite its ecological and cultural significance, lacks comparable institutional protection and visibility. Importantly, these contexts are not directly comparable: Europe benefits from strong policy frameworks and financial mechanisms, while Yörük pastoralism faces grazing restrictions, demographic decline, and limited recognition. At the same time, the ecological knowledge and adaptive strategies of Yörük communities may themselves provide valuable perspectives for Europe, particularly in semi-arid transition zones where Mediterranean and continental climates converge.

Comparable research demonstrates that manure- and residue-based practices enhance food production, soil conservation, and climate resilience (Dubey et al., 2022), reinforcing the significance of TEK as a sustainable alternative to high-input agricultural models. Recent international developments further emphasize the relevance of this study. UNESCO recognized transhumance as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2019 (UNESCO, 2019), and the United Nations General Assembly declared 2026 the International Year of Pastoralism and Pastoralists (UNGA, 2022). Together, these frameworks reaffirm the global significance of Yörük pastoralism.

The long-standing relationship between Yörüks and their environment represents not only a cultural legacy but also a living knowledge system that supports climate adaptation, ecosystem-based production, and sustainable rural development. Their seasonal mobility between summer and winter pastures enables the cyclical use of natural resources, thereby sustaining provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services.

TEK, expressed through low-input pastoral practices and organic soil management, aligns with global SDGs. By supporting livelihood diversification through small-scale agriculture, herding, handicrafts, and ecotourism, Yörük knowledge contributes to rural economies and strengthens community resilience.

However, modernization, sedentarization, and youth outmigration have weakened intergenerational transmission and ecological resilience. Addressing these vulnerabilities requires revitalization strategies such as cooperativism, ecotourism, cultural branding, digitization of oral traditions, and locally grounded education models.