The relationship between nature and humans has been characterized by its complexity and multifaceted nature, shaped over centuries by diverse cultures and traditions. Mexican indigenous communities have developed a detailed knowledge of the natural world, including fungi, which has been passed down from generation to generation. This knowledge, which takes a holistic perspective, is a fundamental source for reflecting on and addressing contemporary environmental challenges (Merino-Galindo and Márquez-Molina, 2025; Ramírez-Terrazo et al., 2021). Wild edible fungi are a non-timber forest resource (see Figure 1) and have been an integral part of the diet, culture, and traditional medicine of Mexico's indigenous communities since ancient times (Merino-Galindo and Márquez-Molina, 2025). Unlike mushrooms cultivated for commercial purposes, wild species represent enormous biological and cultural diversity, with more than 350 species recognized in the country (Aguirre-Acosta et al., 2014).

The diverse peoples who inhabit Mexico have considered, and continue to think, wild edible mushrooms as a vital resource for their subsistence, as well as an integral part of their culture. These mushrooms grow in Mexico's diverse ecosystems, including agroecosystems. From north to south and east to west, mushrooms represent, to a greater or lesser extent, a vital food resource during the rainy season in all regions of the country. However, some species also appear in winter (Pleurotus djamor) and even in spring (Lyophyllum and Neolentinus) (Moreno-Fuentes, 2014).

Virtually all of Mexico's indigenous communities (“Purépecha”, “Nahua”, “Otomí”, “Lacandon”, and “Huichol”, to name a few), including those living in arid and semi-desert regions, have a deep understanding and significant use of these ways of life. Traditional knowledge is the dynamic set of knowledge, skills, or practices developed and transmitted by indigenous communities over time, based on continuous adaptation to their natural and cultural environment. This knowledge covers various areas, such as agriculture, environmental management, medicine, cultural practices, as well as the construction and administration of natural resources. Far from being static, this knowledge is dynamic and forms an essential part of the identity, well-being, and cultural heritage of these communities (Haro-Luna et al., 2019).

Their collection and sale in local markets are an essential source of income for many rural families (López-García et al., 2024). It has been reported that mushroom production in pine forests exceeds 100 kg/ha/year, while in Abies religiosa forests it reaches 214 kg/ha/year, reflecting the abundance of these species in such forests. At least 100 different species are sold at 411 stalls in local markets in the center of the country, with more than 90% of sellers being women between the ages of 40 and 60, and the peak sales season is from June to September (Rodríguez-Muñoz et al., 2012). The deterioration of ecosystems threatens these assets, as does the expansion of cities and the reduction in the exchange of cultural knowledge. At the same time, food science and technology have advanced in the nutritional, pharmacological, and nutraceutical characterization of these fungi, identifying bioactive compounds with potential for human health, such as antioxidants, immunomodulatory polysaccharides, and secondary metabolites with antimicrobial and anticancer properties (Kumar et al., 2021). The objective of this article is to present a brief review of the analysis of the biocultural, nutritional, and pharmacological value of wild edible fungi in Mexican indigenous communities.

Mexican indigenous communities have detailed knowledge of edible wild mushrooms, including when to harvest them, their habitats, culinary uses, and even traditional medicinal applications. Among the most prized species are “chanterelle” (Cantharellus cibarius), “tejamanil” (Clitocybe infundibuliformis), “clove” (clavito; Lyophyllum decastes), “tecomate” (Amanita caesarea), and “pumpkin” (calabaza; Boletus edulis), to name a few (Burrola-Aguilar et al., 2012; Merino-Galindo and Márquez-Molina, 2025; Santiago et al., 2016). Wild mushrooms are commonly used in traditional recipes that vary by region within the country. These recipes involve the preparation of sauces, stews, and festive dishes, thereby contributing to the consolidation of Mexico's cultural identity. Culinary knowledge related to mushrooms is reflected in a wide variety of dishes, where macromycetes can be a main ingredient or a complement. They are used in traditional sauces, such as red and green mole, as well as in pork dishes served with green sauce or a red marinade blue mushroom (Lactarius indigo) (Valle-Marquina et al., 2023).

Preliminary studies were conducted to evaluate the nutritional content and the impact of heat treatment on the nutraceutical properties of wild species such as blue mushroom, feather mushroom (Ramaria flava), and spicy mushroom (Hypomyces lactifluorum), collected in temperate Pinus patula and Quercus crassifolia forests in the Sierra Norte de Puebla. The results showed that these mushrooms have high nutritional value and retain more than 50% of their antioxidant properties after cooking (Espejel-Sánchez et al., 2021) (see Table 1).

These wild mushrooms, which grow mainly in temperate and coniferous forests during the rainy season, have a short shelf life; therefore, they must be consumed fresh or preserved using traditional methods. Their collection is a community activity that integrates ecological and cultural knowledge, respecting natural cycles to avoid overexploitation (Zamora-Martínez et al., 2014). These mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of mycorrhizal fungi, organisms that establish symbiotic associations with the roots of more than 80% of terrestrial plants. Mycorrhizae are classified as endomycorrhizae, where the mycelium penetrates the root cells, and ectomycorrhizae, which form a surface layer around the roots.

The fundamental function of this symbiosis is the exchange of nutrients: plants provide carbon derived from photosynthesis, while fungi mainly supply nitrogen and phosphorus. These associations confer crucial advantages on plants, such as better access to nutrients, protection against pathogens, and greater tolerance to environmental stress. However, overexploitation of fruiting bodies negatively affects the underground mycelium, altering the persistence and effectiveness of these mycorrhizal associations. For example, in Pinus teocote-Quercus rugosa forests, intensive harvesting of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms impairs mycelium development, reducing the soil's capacity to support the natural regeneration of young plants. This prevents the recovery of degraded areas, as mycorrhizae are essential for the survival and establishment of seedlings in adverse conditions (Carrillo-Saucedo et al., 2022).

In Oaxaca, the unregulated exploitation of fungi such as the blue fungus, associated with Quercus castanea and Pinus teocote, also damages these associations that are essential for ecosystem resilience (Jiménez-Ruiz et al., 2013). A similar situation is observed in regions of Michoacán and the State of Mexico, where “Nahua”, “Tlahuica”, and “Purépecha” indigenous communities collect multiple mycorrhizal species, underscoring the importance of sustainable practices to preserve both the food resource and the ecological function of mycorrhizae (Gil-Fernández et al., 2025; González-Rivadeneira et al., 2022). Maintaining sustainable management of mushroom harvesting is crucial to ensuring the stability and renewal of natural forests in Mexico.

The edible wild mushrooms that grow in Mexico's diverse ecosystems contain a variety of bioactive compounds with pharmacological and nutraceutical properties. The combination of ancestral indigenous knowledge and contemporary scientific research has enabled the identification and characterization of these compounds, opening new frontiers for their use in natural medicine and functional foods (Jiménez-Ruiz et al., 2013; López-García et al., 2020; Sánchez-García et al., 2020).

One of the main bioactive compounds found in these edible wild mushrooms is polysaccharides, with β-glucans being one of the most crucial. These can stimulate the immune system or boost the activity of macrophages and natural killer cells, thereby promoting a systemic anti-inflammatory response. This immunomodulatory action is essential for the prevention and complementary treatment of infectious, inflammatory, and degenerative diseases (Chopra et al., 2021; Arce-Torres et al., 2020; Jiménez-Ruiz et al., 2013; Jiang et al., 2024; Cha et al., 2024; Bell et al., 2025).

Mushrooms such as blue mushroom and feather mushroom contain high levels of natural antioxidants, including carotenoids and phenolic compounds, which neutralize free radicals responsible for cell damage and premature aging. The antioxidant activity of these mushrooms contributes to protection against chronic non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, which are significant public health problems in Mexico and worldwide (Sánchez, 2016; González-Morales et al., 2021).

The “tecomate” mushroom possesses secondary metabolites with neuroprotective and anticarcinogenic properties (Villanueva-Jiménez et al., 2006). Preliminary studies have shown that extracts of this species can inhibit tumor cell proliferation and protect neurons against oxidative damage, validating traditional uses in indigenous folk medicine to treat various conditions (Li et al., 2019; Tong et al., 2023). In vitro tests have shown that the “lobster” mushroom (“enchilado anaranjado”; Lactarius deliciosus) and “red milkman” mushroom (“lechero rojo”; Lactarius sanguifluus) exhibit antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (Kostić et al., 2023; Stanković et al., 2022).

Edible wild mushrooms are also an essential source not only of macronutrients but also of dietary fiber, vitamin B, vitamin D, and minerals (potassium, zinc, iron, and selenium). This composition makes them valuable allies in improving nutrition in indigenous communities, in which micronutrient deficiencies can be a recurring problem due to the marginalization they suffer (Cano-Estrada and Romero-Bautista, 2016; Singh et al., 2025; Bell et al., 2022).

Regular consumption of these mushrooms contributes to the regulation of lipid and glycemic metabolism, to the presence of polysaccharides and soluble fiber, which improve intestinal health and decrease the absorption of fats and sugars. This is especially relevant in the prevention of emerging metabolic diseases, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, which affect an increasing number of people in rural and urban areas due to the excessive consumption of processed and ultra-processed foods (Araújo-Rodrigues et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2023; Shamim et al., 2023).

The knowledge of indigenous communities about the medicinal and nutritional uses of wild mushrooms coincides with current scientific findings, highlighting the importance of preserving and valuing both forms of knowledge (Servín-Campuzano and Alarcón-Cháires, 2018). This convergence creates a bridge for the development of culturally relevant and sustainable nutraceutical products that respect biodiversity and the rights of native peoples. Scientific recognition of the pharmacological and nutraceutical potential of these mushrooms presents opportunities for responsible bioprospecting and the development of supplements and functional foods that can benefit both Indigenous communities and the general population, thereby promoting local economic growth and environmental conservation.

Working on the process of technification for the cultivation and use of edible wild mushrooms in Mexico is a strategic window of opportunity that seeks to become a strength in reducing malnutrition problems in the country. It also aims to continue conserving biodiversity and boost the economic development of indigenous communities. Food science and technology have advanced in the design of innovative methodologies that seek to preserve these natural resources, as well as increase their production in a sustainable and responsible manner. It is important to note that the physicochemical and microbiological characterization of wild mushrooms is essential for establishing their quality and safety. Today, experimental techniques allow us to determine bioactive compounds, create nutritional profiles, and detect possible contaminants or toxins (Bhambri et al., 2022; Anusiya et al., 2021).

These foods can be preserved through hot air dehydration, freeze-drying, or controlled atmosphere storage, with the aim of extending their shelf life without compromising their nutritional or functional properties. This is because they have a short shelf life and are perishable due to the high-water content in their structures (Castellanos-Reyes et al., 2021). Although most wild mushrooms are not cultivated commercially due to their complex symbiotic relationship with specific trees and ecosystems, science has advanced in the development of techniques for their controlled cultivation or semi-cultivation, especially for mycorrhizal species such as pumpkin mushroom and chanterelle mushroom (Guerin-Laguette, 2021). This can reduce pressure on natural populations and ensure a constant supply.

To achieve sustainable cultivation of wild mushrooms, spores or mycelium are inoculated into soils and substrates, seeking to maintain ecological conditions that promote natural regeneration (Saldanha et al., 2023). The transfer of technology to these indigenous communities must be participatory, always seeking to respect their local sovereignty, adapt to their governance, cultural, and environmental contexts, and thereby ensuring its adoption and future success.

Among the technification strategies employed is controlled inoculation in natural or semi-artificial ecosystems. An example of this is the inoculation of the “tecomate” mushroom in temperate forests, which seeks to establish the natural propagation of this fungus in plots of defined dimensions that favor its growth, thus becoming a product that leads to sustainable regional and social development for rural communities (Ríos-García et al., 2023; Jasso-Arriaga et al., 2016; Jasso-Arriaga, 2024). In ejidos such as El Terrero and Colima, training processes have been proposed through technology transfer to local producers to strengthen the autonomy and productive capacity of these populations (INIFAP, 2023).

The development of liquid bioinoculants with native ectomycorrhizal fungi, such as Hebeloma (Hebeloma alpinum) and pine fungi (Suillus pseudobrevipes), has improved fungal colonization in forest seedlings, particularly those of pine species such as Pinus ayacahuite, which benefits reforestation (Arteaga-León et al., 2018; Baeza-Guzmán et al., 2025). These technologies not only promote sustainable production of this food, but also have a positive impact on ecological restoration and conservation in areas that have been degraded by forest fires or excessive logging. Technology transfer has been a key component for the success of these projects. The training of indigenous producers and technicians in wild mushroom inoculation techniques, plot management, and conservation has enabled the implementation of technologies on significant land extensions (Carrillo-Saucedo et al., 2022), with institutional support from agencies such as the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP).

The incorporation of wild mushrooms into functional food products and nutraceuticals is a strategy to add value and diversify the rural economy (Sangeeta et al., 2024). The elaboration of powders, extracts, capsules, and food mixtures allows for taking advantage of their bioactive properties and facilitating their consumption in both urban and rural areas. Food science also contributes to the formulation of safe and stable products with high bioavailability of active compounds using encapsulation, microemulsions, and other technologies. This opens opportunities for indigenous communities to participate in higher-value-added production chains, thereby strengthening their economic autonomy.

Technology transfer must respect the cultural, linguistic, and social characteristics of indigenous communities, promoting intercultural training processes that recognize and complement this empirical knowledge with modern science. Despite these advances, technification faces significant challenges, including the ecological complexity of mycorrhizal fungi, the need to adapt technologies to specific cultural contexts, and the protection of the intellectual property rights of indigenous communities. It is essential to ensure the protection of intellectual property rights and provide fair access to the benefits derived from the use of these resources, thus avoiding biopiracy and the misappropriation of ancestral knowledge.

In conclusion, the biocultural richness of wild edible mushrooms in Mexican indigenous communities is an invaluable resource that combines tradition, nutrition, and therapeutic potential. These mushrooms not only constitute an essential component of the local food and economy but also contain bioactive compounds with pharmacological and nutraceutical properties that can contribute significantly to public health. Food science and technology provide key tools to characterize, preserve, and process these mushrooms, facilitating their sustainable use and the creation of functional products that add value and open new economic opportunities for communities.

However, for this potential to be realized fairly and sustainably, it is essential that technology transfer respects and integrates with traditional knowledge, promoting the active participation of indigenous communities and protecting their cultural and intellectual property rights. Interdisciplinary collaboration and intercultural dialogue are crucial for developing strategies that enhance food security, conserve biodiversity, and foster equitable rural development.