We conducted our field research in the KAZA region of Namibia from December 24, 2023, to January 26, 2024. This region, located in the northeastern part of Namibia, within the Zambezi region (formerly known as the Caprivi strip), is part of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA), one of the world’s largest transnational conservation areas (Stoldt et al., 2020). KAZA spans several countries, including Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Namibia. The Namibian part encompasses various parks, the Caprivi State Forest, conservancies, and community forests between protected zones. The capital of the Zambezi region is Katima Mulilo. In contrast to Namibia’s arid regions, the Zambezi region is characterized by a network of waterways and abundant wildlife, which draws significant tourism (Dittman and Müller-Mahn, 2023). Additionally, the region is home to numerous traditional villages inhabited by several ethnic groups, such as the Subia, Herero, and Totela. As the heart of the KAZA conservation area, the Zambezi region facilitates the movement of wildlifeincluding elephants, through its wildlife corridors (Lupiya, 2019).

This biodiversity-rich stretch is fragmented by a wide, paved road that replaced the previous dirt road in 2001 (according to one elderly respondent living near the road), forming the Trans-Caprivi Highway, which connects Namibia to its neighboring countries. The Subia tribe, predominantly agropastoralists, primarily inhabits the area along this road. This study focuses on the road segment extending from Katima Mulilo to Ngoma, which borders Botswana.

We employed systematic sampling to select four villages based on their proximity to the highway: two villages close to the highway (Ngoma and Bukalo, <1 km away) and two farther villages (Sifuha and Mutikitila, approximately 20 km away) (see Figure 2). The thresholds of <1 and 20 km were chosen to represent two distinct spatial contexts: immediate proximity and relative remoteness from infrastructure. The <1 km category captures communities directly adjacent to infrastructure, where impacts are likely to be most pronounced. The 20 km threshold was selected to represent communities that are significantly removed from direct infrastructure influence, serving as a comparative baseline. There are no standard thresholds on remoteness in the literature, as the distribution of households in reference to roads is context-specific.

Further, we employed a purposive sampling strategy to select individuals who represented key characteristics relevant to the research, specifically, diverse socio-ecological contexts. This approach ensured that the sample captured a broad spectrum of experiences and perspectives across the four villages. To further expand the participant pool and reach individuals who might not have been initially identified, snowball sampling was used. In this technique, initial respondents were asked to refer others within their community who met the study criteria, allowing the researchers to access more nuanced social networks and perspectives. Approximately 20 respondents were chosen from each village, with efforts made to ensure variation in key demographic characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, and number of years spent in formal education. In total, 83 respondents were selected through this combined approach. While lists from the village heads (locally referred to as Indunas) could have supported random sampling, our approach prioritized selecting participants with relevant experiential knowledge of nature-related values in varying spatial contexts. This was essential for capturing nuanced perspectives aligned with the Nature Futures Framework.

The data collection method included, first, semi-structured questions in the form of a survey and second, participatory mapping workshops, during which respondents engaged in participatory mapping exercises. Before data collection, a preliminary site visit was made to each village to inform the Indunas about the study and request permission to conduct research in the area. All four Indunas granted permission, with two actively participating as respondents. Over four weeks, the researcher and a field assistant visited the villages three days a week. Given that most respondents in the four villages were fluent in the Subia language but had limited proficiency in English, we used the assistance of a translator to facilitate effective communication during the interviews.

We designed the semi-structured questions based on the three dimensions of the NFF, which were informed by the value assessment methodology developed by IPBES (IPBES, 2022). Before administering the questions (quantitative valuing) and conducting participatory workshops (qualitative valuing), we ensured that the respondents clearly understood the NC, NN, and NS dimensions of the NFF and how we intended to use it to gain divergent valuations of nature and plural visions of human-nature relationships. Consequently, respondents completed the survey assessing their perceptions of nature [use of their natural ecosystems and biodiversity (NS), their cultural interconnectedness with them (NC), and their autonomy or right to exist, evolve, and function independently without human interference (NN)] across three temporal scenarios: the present, a probable future, and a desirable future. For each scenario, they assigned percentage values reflecting their perceived value of nature concerning the NN, NC, and NS categories. In each scenario, the sum of these values adds up to 100% (Table 1 below).

Additionally, we collected individual socioeconomic and demographic data, including age, gender, cumulative years of schooling (formal education), and employment status (whether they had a source of income or not). Furthermore, flexible follow-up questions were used to elicit unique responses from respondents. For example, during visits to traditional shrines, we aimed to gain views from respondents of different age categories on how and why the stature and protection of traditionally respected areas were changing. The geographic coordinates of respondents’ houses were also recorded to estimate their approximate distance from the highway. All participants willingly consented to take part in the survey.

Following the semi-structured survey, all respondents from each of the four villages participated in a participatory mapping exercise. Before beginning, a group explanation was provided to ensure shared understanding of the task, after which the respondents worked uninterrupted and in self-coordination among themselves. Each group (the respective village respondents) independently created three sets of maps: one illustrating current land use, another depicting probable future developments, and a third reflecting their desirable vision for their village. The maps aimed to capture each group’s understanding of their environment while capturing the future scenarios based on their local knowledge and lived experience. Participants used markers and manila paper, with different colours symbolizing specific land-use values based on the NFF: green for “Nature for Nature,” blue for “Nature as Culture,” red for “Nature for Society,” and black for roads, pathways, and non-traditional residential areas.

This exercise yielded twelve maps (see Appendix)—three from each village—enabling a comparative visual analysis of both within and across villages over time. Additionally, we visited cultural sites, such as Luchindo Village and the Masubia Shrine, accompanied by one of the Indunas, who provided insights into the changing cultural roles of these historically sacred areas in nature conservation, particularly in light of generational shifts and changing land uses. These visits provided valuable contextual information, contributing to the achievement of the study’s objectives.

The quantitative data collected during the research were systematically organized in a Microsoft Excel table format to support further analysis. We used R software (version 4.3.3) and relevant packages such as dplyr (Wickham, 2017) for data cleaning and lm (R Core Team, 2024) to assess the statistical relationship of the various variables. To assess the respondents’ perceived agency in shaping future human-nature relationships, we operationalized agency as the alignment between their probable and desirable futures. Specifically, we calculated the absolute difference between each respondent’s valuation of a probable future and their valuation for a desirable future (using the data collected as in Table 1) across the three dimensions of the Nature Futures Framework (NN, NC, and NS). This difference reflects the perceived gap between expectation and aspiration (see Table 2). To derive a standardized measure of agency, we subtracted the absolute difference from 100% such that higher scores indicate greater perceived agency – i.e., a stronger belief that the future one desires is attainable.

Agency Score = 100 – (Desirable -Probable).

To examine the relationship between individual perceived agency and contextual factors such as age, gender, occupation, and number of years spent in formal education. We employed beta regression analysis since our dependent variable was a percentage value, which we rescaled to a range of 0 and 1. Furthermore, we conducted a multicollinearity test to check if the independent variables were collinear. We ruled out multicollinearity in our model. Consequently, we ran beta regression models first, obtaining the logit-scale coefficient, and based on these, we estimated the marginal effect to get the effect in terms of percentage-point changes in the dependent variable (Table 3).

We classified occupation status into employed (respondents reporting a source of income regardless of which one) and unemployed (those without a source of income). Gender and occupational status were treated as binary variables, whereas age and education (measured as cumulative years of schooling) were treated as continuous variables. Although household size and wealth were not included in the present analysis, we recognize they would have a potential influence in the outcomes and recommend their inclusion on future studies. The regression analysis was conducted based on two sub-samples: villages near the road (NR), including respondents from Ngoma and Bukalo villages, and villages far from the road (FR), including respondents from Mutikitila and Sifuha villages.

Qualitative data reflecting responses to open questions and comment sections were categorized per village. However, the number of responses and comments does not necessarily correspond to the total number of respondents, as some individuals either chose not to provide additional remarks or had no further input beyond the quantified responses. We visually compared the participatory maps to identify differences between the probable and desirable future visions of villages near and distant from the main road. Additionally, observations from cultural site visits were documented in detailed descriptive notes, integrating both direct observations and the Induna’s narratives of the historical significance of these sites.

Respondents expressed enthusiasm in visualizing their villages’ current and future states but also sought clarity on the next steps, expressing hope that their contributions would lead to tangible outcomes. The participatory maps generated by respondents provide a powerful medium to interpret how communities in the KAZA region perceive and project change across the three dimensions of NFF. A comparative visual analysis between probable and desirable futures in villages near and far from roads reveals clear spatial patterns, symbolic cues, and underlying narratives of agency.

A study by Heisel et al. (2021) ecological knowledge, perceived agency, and motivation regarding wildlife conservation in Kenya found that Nature as Culture—understood here as a relational value—plays a crucial role in shaping knowledge systems. NC reflects the meaningful relationships between people and nature, including identity, responsibility, and care, and extends beyond symbolic or cultural associations to encompass deeper relational dimensions. While national policies do not universally adopt this relational framing, there are context-specific examples where it is reflected. For instance, in Namibia, formal education curricula incorporate regionally tailored content such as environmental education and wildlife conservation, as noted by some of the youth respondents, which aligns with the country’s semi-arid ecology and diverse fauna (Harvey and Knox, 2015). However, Linnell et al. (2015) argue that Western education systems often emphasize the direct impacts of human activities on nature while neglecting the relational dimensions of ecological knowledge and the role of individual and community agency in fostering nature-positive futures. This omission weakens the relational lens through which individuals understand the value of nature and may contribute to diminished perceived agency for NC. This dynamic may help explain our finding that, in communities located farther from roads—where cultural traditions and relational ties to nature are more strongly preserved, increased years of formal education are associated with reduced perceived agency for NC.

Findings from this study suggest that individuals residing closer to road infrastructure reported slightly higher perceived agency in achieving positive visions for NC, as reflected in the statistically significant relationship between NC agency and education level in the beta regression results, as well as respondent comments. This trend appears to correlate with increased access to alternative income sources and greater exposure to both the benefits and ecological disruptions associated with road development, such as forest clearing, land fragmentation, and wildlife habitat loss. Additionally, respondents with higher levels of formal education, who were more commonly located near roads, demonstrated greater awareness and engagement with conservation efforts, reinforcing their sense of agency. For example, a 28-year-old added to their valuation that “We live near the road, and I have pursued my degree in the city. Until now, more trees continue to be cut, and the number of shops and firewood businesses along the road is increasing. I appreciate the role that our culture used to play in conserving our ecosystems.” These results align with the broader interpretation that ecological education can enhance agency; however, when such education fails to incorporate relational values such as care, stewardship, and identity, it may weaken the very human-nature connections that the concept of Nature as Culture seeks to uphold. Ecological education that embraces NC as a relational value is essential not only for equipping students with the skills to address environmental challenges but also for fostering attitudes that promote sustainable development and deepen human–nature relationships (Chen and Bu, 2019).

The current generation of educated young people increasingly perceives aspects of their centuries-old culture as “primitive” and gradually becoming “outdated” (Lilemba and Matemba, 2014). Our field visits revealed that cultural heritage sites, such as Luchindo Village and the Masubia Shrine, have deteriorated along with the once-dense forests surrounding the royal family’s sacred burial site, located approximately 18 kilometers from the main road. We observed encroachment with individuals constructing houses and engaging in agricultural activities. Additionally, one of the few remaining large trees was being cut down to craft a boat for a member of the royal family.

Overall, younger respondents in our study demonstrated limited knowledge of traditional stories about nature compared to middle-aged and older participants. Elderly respondents attributed the younger generation’s diminishing connection to cultural norms to the influence of modern education systems. One 72-year-old participant remarked, “[…] They are always in school learning different things. When they come home, they are on their phones or doing assignments and do not want to listen to our old and outdated stories […].”

While Rana et al. (2020) note that many young people experience future-related anxiety due to global challenges such as climate change, they also actively engage in constructing positive future scenarios using the NFF. This was evident in our study, young participants showed enthusiasm in envisioning the current status, desired, and probable futures of their villages. They have gained awareness of potential solutions through formal education, conferences, and other knowledge-sharing platforms (UNDP, 2024). Despite being categorized as a “silent majority” and marginalized group with limited agency in shaping positive future visions, young people have opportunities through technology and information networks to address environmental issues and drive sustainable practices (Vincent and Gitau, 2022). Our study found that youth residing in more remote communities located farther from major road infrastructure demonstrated higher levels of engagement in participatory mapping exercises and expressed a strong commitment to envisioning desirable futures for nature. In contrast, youth living closer to the road were more frequently involved in economic activities enabled by improved infrastructure or had migrated to urban areas (in some cases, commuting daily) in search of employment. These circumstances may have limited their availability or interest in local environmental planning initiatives. This pattern is consistent with the composition of our sample, which included a greater proportion of youth participants from villages situated farther from the road.

Although women in remote areas possess significant knowledge and firsthand experience in nature conservation and land degradation (Vincent and Gitau, 2022), they continue to be marginalized in policy-making processes (Arya et al., 1998). Women are often classified as part of the “silent majority,” particularly in remote, roadless areas where economic development is still emerging (Robyn et al., 2021). As a result, their perspectives on land use and conservation efforts are frequently overlooked when implementing sustainable initiatives.

Moreover, certain conservation projects may not directly benefit women due to cultural restrictions limiting their participation in taboo activities within their communities. Findings from this study indicate that men traditionally hold greater decision-making power, often leaving women feeling disempowered in influencing the relationship between culture and nature. This is particularly evident in communities farther from major roads, as demonstrated by the significant relationship between the agency for NC and gender (Table 2). These results underscore the need for increased efforts to promote women’s inclusion and enhance their agency in NC, thereby strengthening their engagement in NN conservation (Susilo and Kodir, 2019). However, our study also found that women exhibited a greater level of agency in shaping future visions for Nature for Society (NS) compared to men. Some women commented that they collect firewood for cooking, farm on the land, gather some wild fruits, and grow vegetables and medicinal plants, as was observed with Moringa herbs (highly valuable and used for multiple purposes both traditionally and in modern medicine) in most households.

Proximity to the Trans-Caprivi highway appeared to shape how respondents experienced the relationship between unemployment and perceived agency. Most survey participants acknowledged that road infrastructure facilitated mobility, enabling individuals to seek employment opportunities elsewhere and maintain connections beyond their immediate communities. While the statistical relationship between unemployment and agency for NN and NS was not significant, a general trend emerged in which perceived agency tended to decline with increasing unemployment. Notably, a large proportion of unemployed respondents were youth, particularly those residing in remote villages. This demographic pattern may help explain the observed decline in agency, as younger individuals without stable income sources may feel less empowered to influence nature-positive futures. This aligns with findings from Namibia, where high unemployment rates among youth—especially in rural areas—have been linked to diminished agency and reduced engagement in community development (Amadhila, 2025).

Additionally, some unemployed respondents in this study commented that cultural norms and limited infrastructural development in remote villages far from the highway had prevented them from accessing opportunities to improve their lives, resulting in a lower sense of agency for nature conservation. Several participants expressed a desire for improved road infrastructure, believing it would create job opportunities and enhance their ability to shape a better future. This observation is consistent with reports indicating that poor rural infrastructure in Namibia hampers access to essential services and economic opportunities, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups (Namibian Sun, 2024). Interestingly, Vale and Vale (2013) noted that individuals living farther from roads may express a stronger commitment to envisioning desirable futures for nature, due to limited external employment prospects and a greater reliance on local environmental resources. In this context, unemployment may also drive agency for NS in remote areas, as individuals seek alternative pathways for economic and environmental engagement in the absence of formal employment opportunities.

Research in environmental psychology suggests that an individual’s belief in their capacity to effect change through their actions (agency) significantly shapes their behavior toward the environment (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002; Wolf and Moser, 2011). While roads are widely recognized as catalysts for economic development, our findings indicate that they can also diminish people’s ability to engage with nature’s cultural and social benefits. This, in turn, contributes to a decline in the agency for nature conservation, particularly in areas close to roads. Some respondents expressed concern that they might never encounter wildlife such as elephants again, which they considered crucial for passing down indigenous knowledge and fostering awareness of nature conservation among future generations.

A middle-aged respondent living near the road shared a perspective on the cultural shift, stating, “[…] Our parents and grandparents used to tell us stories about nature, animals, and the punishments or taboos associated with harming the environment in our culture. We would see these animals in our surroundings and connect them to the folktales. Unfortunately, today, our children cannot witness wildlife moving freely because of the road […] They have disappeared. People must now pay to see them in conservancies […].”

Furthermore, some respondents believed that nature conservation was primarily the responsibility of conservancies and the relevant government ministries rather than the local community. Some individuals living near the highway expressed limited relational connection to nature (NC), as they did not perceive meaningful cultural or identity-based benefits from top-down conservation programs. Their engagement with nature conservation appeared to be shaped more by the absence of tangible, instrumental benefits (NS), such as economic incentives or livelihood support. This perspective aligns with the argument by Harvey and Knox (2015) that policy regulations tend to regard people merely as users of nature, often overlooking their local ecological knowledge and potential contributions to conservation. Nevertheless, the participatory maps show the communities’ ambition to integrate NN and NS in their desirable futures, indicating a sustainable approach to the future development visions of their villages, especially far from the road.

Overall, roads play a crucial yet complex role in shaping individuals’ and communities´ visions of and agency for nature conservation. Despite the diverse perspectives and competing visions surrounding conservation efforts, this research highlights the significance of embracing pluralism, as advocated by the Nature Futures Framework.

In this research, we acknowledge the significance of embracing diverse visions within NN, NC, and NS value perspectives. We highlighted how various factors—both near and distant from the highway—shape different perspectives and levels of agency in envisioning and achieving future human-nature relationships. Thus, while the proximity of villages to roads is a significant consideration, it is only one of many factors influencing these perspectives.

Western worldviews often emphasize direct human influence on nature (Maldonado, 2015). In contrast, many non-Western cultures, particularly in Africa, traditionally attribute environmental changes to external forces such as fate, cultural taboos, or sacred practices that maintain human-nature relationships (Sasaoka and Laumonier, 2012). Several respondents in this study emphasized that cutting certain trees is considered taboo within their cultural traditions. Older participants specifically expressed concern over the declining recognition of sacred sites such as Luchindo Village and the Masubia Shrine, which were historically central to conservation practices. Meanwhile, younger respondents noted that “we no longer practice the ‘old’ rites of passage in the forest,” reflecting a generational shift away from traditional ecological knowledge and the potential decline in NC valuation and agency. This erosion of cultural engagement appears to be contributing to the deterioration and abandonment of these previously protected sites. Integrating such local perspectives on human-nature relationships can enhance the credibility of conservation initiatives, improve their prospects for both short- and long-term success, and promote cultural respect and social justice (Sasaoka and Laumonier, 2012). When Western-centric assumptions about environmental agency are unexamined and implicitly imposed, local stakeholders may not share these perspectives, which can lead to resistance. This highlights the importance of the NFF in fostering capacity building at multiple scales by embracing participatory and multistakeholder approaches. The NFF advocates for integrating diverse knowledge systems, including local ecological knowledge, to support inclusive and culturally informed conservation efforts (Díaz et al., 2015; Lundquist et al., 2021).

Nature connectedness (NC), when understood as a relational value, emphasizes the deep, meaningful relationship between people and the natural world. This connection supports the preservation and conservation of biodiversity, aligning closely with the concept of nature’s needs (NN). It also helps address global environmental challenges like climate change, which largely stem from a utilitarian view of nature as a service (NS) to be exploited for human gain. Although NC is challenging to quantify and track due to its diversity across various communities and generations, it is important to understand how different perceptions of human-nature relationships shape individuals’ agency towards sustainable action. Understanding the components and applicability of the NFF was not straightforward for the respondents. Nevertheless, by using local examples and engaging in discussions during the participatory mapping exercises, the participants were able to distinguish between NN, NS, and NC and visualize their visions.

Although we attempted statistical analysis using our survey data, we recognize that the small sample size and non-normal distribution of some variables may have biased our results. For example, about 70% of the less educated and unemployed respondents were women. Additionally, we acknowledge that other socio-economic variables, such as household size and wealth (both monetary and material), were not collected. As the omission of these variables was unintentional, we recommend their inclusion in future research to enhance the validity of regression results. Despite these limitations, we believe that this study is a step towards exploring the connection between positive views of human–nature relationships, individuals’ ability to realize this vision, and proximity to main roads as key factors influencing these relationships.