This section outlines key terms referring to TCL used within the scientific discourse. While a comprehensive, universally accepted terminology remains elusive in this interdisciplinary field, the following terms illustrate the diverse conceptualizations and research approaches, and form the basis for our literature search in Section 3 (Bürgi et al., 2017): cultural landscapes (e.g., Domingo and Sánchez, 2023); traditional rural landscapes (e.g., Tempesta and Vecchiato, 2019; Torquati et al., 2018); bio-cultural refugia (e.g., Barthel et al., 2013); biocultural heritage landscapes (e.g., Svensson et al., 2023); world agricultural heritages (e.g., Sekine, 2022); high nature value farming landscapes (e.g., Plieninger et al., 2019); and agroforestry landscapes (e.g., Wolpert et al., 2020). The varied terminology reflects the rich, multidisciplinary engagement with landscapes shaped by long-term human interaction. For the purpose of this study, TCL are considered as the overarching concept, characterized by extensive management, historical human–environment interaction, and their provision of both ecological and cultural values. Other terms presented herein represent broader categories (e.g., cultural landscape), specific manifestations (e.g., agroforestry landscapes), or conceptual frameworks for valuing heritage (e.g., bio-cultural refugia), which collectively informed our understanding and search strategy for this review.

Examples of TCL in Europe include various agroforestry systems, such as the holm oak landscapes (e.g., Tieskens et al., 2017), chestnut landscapes (e.g., Wolpert et al., 2020), terraced olive groves (e.g., Torquati et al., 2015), and orchard meadows (e.g., Forejt and Syrbe, 2019), as well as traditional sheep pastures (e.g., Đugum et al., 2021), heathlands (e.g., Fischer and Küster, 2023), and extensive fish ponds scattered across a mosaic of landscapes (e.g., Wezel et al., 2013).

While the majority of TCL are concentrated in mostly rural regions with decreasing populations and scarce economic resources, they are heterogeneous in size, structure, and biophysical conditions, differing also in their socio-economic characteristics. They include areas smaller than 50 km² within specific regions as well as more cohesive landscapes of over 500 km². While some farmers rely on TCL production as a primary source of income, others cultivate their land for predominantly altruistic purposes (García-Martín et al., 2021).

Notwithstanding this diversity, three key characteristics are typical of TCL. First, this kind of landscapes are usually managed and farmed extensively rather than intensively in the manner of modern agricultural systems (García-Martín et al., 2021; García-Martín et al., 2022). Unlike intensive farming, a low level of external inputs are used in production, and farmers breed their animals to be long-living and well-adapted to their habitat (García-Martín et al., 2021; García-Martín et al., 2022). Extensive cultivation practices also allow for the presence of landscape elements such as trees, stonewalls, terraces, hedgerows, small forest patches, and ponds (Tieskens et al., 2017; Wezel et al., 2013). As such, many TCL are agroforestry systems that allow multiple uses of the area (Plieninger et al., 2020). Second, TCL have been established over a long period of time through the interactions of people with their natural environments. Indeed, those found in Europe today have developed over thousands of years (Bieling et al., 2014; Fernández-Ferrín et al., 2018). Third, they are often managed using traditional techniques and tools. Moreover, they are typically distinguished by strong associations with distinct crafts, styles of architecture, music, place names, and specific forms of social organization (Fernández-Ferrín et al., 2018; García-Martín et al., 2022).

These three common characteristics are closely related to the valuable ecosystem services provided by TCL (García-Martín et al., 2021, García-Martín et al., 2022). Importantly, this kind of landscapes help maintain biodiversity in agriculture. For example, the use of old varieties serve as on-farm ‘gene banks’ (Đugum et al., 2021). Agroforestry systems contribute to reducing soil erosion and nutrient losses, with greater potential for carbon sequestration (Plieninger et al., 2020). In addition to scenic values and the opportunities they often provide for recreation, these landscapes often contribute to wellbeing by helping to build social relations and cultural identity (Schaich et al., 2010; Zander and Waibel, 2005). In many countries, moreover, products from TCL contribute to income in rural regions and create local value chains (Flinzberger et al., 2022). This is at least partly because this kind of landscapes provide the basis for a variety of locally and traditionally produced food and beverages made from fruit and livestock (García-Martín et al., 2022).

Several terms are used to define products originating from, or associated with, TCL in the literature and various policy frameworks. These include broadly defined concepts such as ‘traditional food products,’ ‘local products,’ and ‘landscape products,’ alongside specific European Union (EU) quality schemes like ‘Protected Designation of Origin’ (PDO) and ‘Protected Geographical Indication’ (PGI), as well as ‘Traditional Speciality Guaranteed’ (TSG) and ‘Optional Quality Terms.’ Table 1 provides a overview of these terms, their key characteristics, and primary usage areas.

The boundaries of all these terms and concepts are not clear, however, with each term focused on a certain aspect of products from TCL while some aspects are cross-cutting. Overall, though, it can be concluded that there are three typical characteristics that distinguish this kind of products from other food products: (1) they are produced (but not necessarily consumed) in a distinct TCL; (2) they are linked with lower-input land-use practices (with greater environmental friendliness and sustainability); and (3) they are connected with traditional cultural and ecological knowledge (traditional and social embedding).

Finally, products from TCL in Europe vary in spatial prevalence, processing, and product type, depending on region and landscape. A large abundance of products from TCL can be found in the Mediterranean region and Southern Europe, with hotspots located in Portugal, southern Spain, southern France, northern Italy, Sicily, and Crete (Flinzberger et al., 2022). Most food products from TCL in Europe are processed, often from fruit trees and vines (e.g., wine, oil, juice), livestock products (e.g., meat and cheese), and to a lesser extent from cereals and vegetables (Flinzberger et al., 2022; García-Martín et al., 2021).

When cultivating TCL, farmers are bound to particular forms of extensive and traditional farming and products resulting from such use. Switching to a more intensive production system to reduce unit production costs would result in the loss of TCL and its ecosystem services (Sekine, 2022). Harnessing the market potential of products from TCL is thus highly dependent on identifying suitable target consumer groups willing to pay the higher prices of these products with added values (Balogh et al., 2016). A target group of consumers consists of a defined group of people who are similar in terms of demographic and psychographic characteristics such as needs, values and behavior. Marketers address these groups systematically via customised products and coordinated communication measures (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015).

A key target group for products with added values are consumers who take ethical aspects into account when purchasing (Carrington et al., 2010; Zander, 2015; Zander et al., 2013). Such ´ethical consumers´ evince preferences for products on account of these products’ environmental, social, economic, and/or cultural attributes, including environmentally-friendly production methods, equitable working conditions, fair prices for farmers, and/or their contribution to the preservation of cultural heritage (Zander et al., 2013). Current market data indicate that 47% of European consumers take environmental aspects into account in some or all of their purchases (European Commission, 2023).

The target group of ethical consumers can be described in terms of their specific needs and characteristics. Typically they are highly involved in their ethical purchase decisions and can be expected to perform extensive information search when the ethical aspects of a product are relevant to them (Carrington et al., 2014). Regarding sociodemographic variables, research has consistently shown that certain factors can influence individuals’ propensity to engage in ethical consumption, though it is important to note these relationships are not always straightforward and that the influence of these variables can vary across different contexts and cultures (Carrington et al., 2014; Zander, 2015). For example, the finding that women overall tend to be more involved in ethical consumption than men is often attributed to women having a greater sense of social responsibility and concern for environmental and social issues; yet gender roles and societal expectations prevailing across contexts can also influence these patterns (Vicente-Vicente et al., 2022). Research also shows that younger generations evince a higher propensity for ethical consumption compared to older generations, which is widely attributed to their relatively higher awareness of social and environmental issues (Tempesta et al., 2010; Torquati et al., 2018). Individuals with higher levels of education are also more likely to engage in ethical consumption, not least because further education can foster critical thinking, awareness of global issues, and a greater understanding of the impact of consumer choices (Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006; Vicente-Vicente et al., 2022).

Although the target group of ethical consumers evince preferences for ethical attributes, in certain situations they do not buy products with such attributes. This phenomenon of ethical attitudes and even intentions not being directly translated into action is referred to as the ethical consumption ‘attitude–behavior gap,’ though also as the ‘intention-behavior’ gap (Carrington et al., 2010; Sultan et al., 2020; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006). Studies have identified several reasons why observable behavior may deviate from attitudes and intentions. First, an important factor in the purchase decision process relates to consumers’ level of knowledge about the ethical attributes of products and their access to clear and reliable information. In practice, ethical consumers often have limited knowledge of agricultural production (Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006; Zander, 2015). Second, limited knowledge or information can also lead to lack of trust. This is because ethical attributes are ‘credence attributes,’ meaning consumers cannot evaluate them directly themselves but must trust the information provided by producers and certification bodies (Padel and Foster, 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006). A third potential barrier is that sustainable products are often unavailable in the quantity, the volume, and the variety that consumers want in their marketplace. A longer search for products can significantly reduce the ‘convenience’ of buying this kind of products (Carrington et al., 2010; Padel and Foster, 2005).

Marketing affords farmers the opportunity to gain access to markets by directly addressing potential target groups. Kotler et al. (2016, p. 33) have usefully defined marketing “as the process by which companies engage customers, build strong customer relationships, and create customer value in order to capture value from customers in return.” In this process marketers must first identify and understand the marketplace and consumer needs before defining their marketing objectives, developing a consumer value-driven marketing strategy, and constructing a marketing programme and measures (Kotler et al., 2016).

The ‘marketing mix’ concept refers to all the activities and measures undertaken to achieve marketing objectives. As such it is an approach and decision-making toolkit for companies that essentially consists of four marketing instruments, also known as the ‘4Ps’ of marketing, namely product policy, price policy, place policy, and promotion policy (Borden, 1964). By harmonising all four instruments, producers can effectively address their target groups and build long-term customer relationships (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015).

Product policy, which is focused on offering products that meet customers’ needs, is often referred to as the core of marketing (Armstrong et al., 2020). The criterion for assessing how well a product meets consumers’ needs is referred to as the ‘utility’ of that product. The total utility of a product consists of its functional attributes and its added values. Functional attributes satisfy the basic and objective needs of consumers (e.g., their provision of calories and nutrients), whereas added values satisfy social-oriented needs (e.g., social reputation), egocentric needs (e.g., aesthetic sense) (Hamm, 1991) and ethical needs (e.g., protection of the environment) (Zander et al., 2013). These functional and added values need to be communicated effectively, most typically via labeling on product packaging. Labeling is thus an important part of product policy, though also of promotion policy since it is important for informing consumers about the product. Labeling includes the name of the product, a description of it (e.g., via pictorial representations and/or textual descriptions), the brand, as well as additional information supporting its positioning (e.g., via ethical labels) (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015). The second element in the marketing mix is pricing policy, with price being the amount of money charged for a product and at the same time the amount consumers have to pay for a product. The price should be set in a way that reflects the value of the product while ensuring it remains competitive on the market. A value-based pricing strategy is oriented to consumers’ perceived value of the product (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015).

The third component of the marketing mix is place policy, i.e., how and where the product is sold and distributed. This includes decision-making about distribution to ensure the product is available in the right places at the right time (Armstrong et al., 2020). Marketers can either sell their products directly to consumers or use intermediaries to enable a broader product range. In making decisions about which main shopping places to focus on, marketers must ensure the product is easily accessible for their target consumers (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015).

The fourth component of the marketing mix is promotion policy, which includes all the communication measures used by a company for conveying its message to the target group, including advertising, sales promotion, and public relations. Promotion policy informs and motivates potential customers to buy. Advertising aims to generate long-term interest in a product or brand among consumers (e.g., through advertisements). Sales promotion aims to stimulate purchases through short-term and usually temporary incentives (e.g., discounts, the provision of product samples or recipes) (Hollensen and Opresnik, 2015). Public relations efforts aim at building and maintaining a relationship of understanding, trust, and sympathy between the company and the public (Armstrong et al., 2020; Hamm, 1991).

Various studies have found that consumers associate products from TCL both with high quality and higher prices (Erraach et al., 2014; Kos Skubic et al., 2018; Menozzi et al., 2022; Mesías et al., 2013; Tempesta et al., 2010; Troiano et al., 2016). This high-price image might hamper demand for this kind of products, though higher prices can also serve as a quality cue (Troiano et al., 2016). It should also be noted that price is a less important selection criterion for consumers buying products for special occasions rather than everyday use, e.g., high-end ham (Kos Skubic et al., 2018).

The key prerequisite of an effective value-added pricing strategy for products from TCL is a strong focus on product quality. A premium price can be feasible if producers and marketers address target groups who are less price-sensitive and who appreciate the added values of products from TCL. High-price strategies must thus be accompanied with well-targeted information for consumers about the added values and advantages of products from TCL as compared to alternative products (Erraach et al., 2014; Menozzi et al., 2022; Mesías et al., 2010).

Direct sales to consumers are a promising way to market products from TCL, affording valuable opportunities for local farmers and small enterprises to develop close and direct contact with their customers in shopping places like market stalls and farmers’ markets (Balogh et al., 2016; Đugum et al., 2021; Kilchling et al., 2009; Philipp and Zander, 2023; Wiedemann et al., 2023). Such close contact enables producers to directly communicate the high quality and added values of their products.

Marketing and distribution via retailers afford the opportunity for producers to extend distribution beyond niche markets and thus generate more sales. Important to note here is that some studies confirm that consumers often buy products from TCL for their daily needs in supermarkets or from multiple retailers when this kind of products (e.g., cooking oil) are available there (Balogh et al., 2016; Di Vita et al., 2013; Tempesta and Vecchiato, 2019).

Since some consumers lack knowledge of how to prepare many of these high-quality products, e.g., carp from traditional fish ponds (Ortiz et al., 2021; Wezel et al., 2013), restaurants can serve as effective distribution channels for introducing and increasing the popularity of products from TCL. However, this finding has not been empirically investigated in the present papers.

The main objective of this article is to answer the research question of how product marketing can contribute to the preservation of TCL in Europe. Figure 3 shows a conceptual framework explaining the relationship between TCL, products, farmers, and consumers, highlighting the role and potential of product marketing in preserving these landscapes. The framework and the results discussed in Section 5 bring together insights from the current state of research on products from TCL and marketing theory (Section 2), as well as key findings from the state-of-the-art review of marketing measures for these products (Section 4).

As illustrated in Figure 3, farmers and local processors cultivate and preserve the TCL that provide the basis for high-quality food products with added values for consumers. As described in detail in marketing literature (see Section 2.5), three main barriers can limit consumer demand for the ethical products: limited consumer knowledge of the (ethical) attributes of these products; lack of consumer trust in product information; and the limited availability of this kind of products in terms of volume, variety, and convenience. Together these result in an attitude–behavior gap that can be bridged by product marketing, i.e., by systematically implementing marketing measures and addressing target groups using the marketing mix. Finally, consumers can support the preservation of TCL by purchasing products from TCL.

The starting point and basis for successfully marketing products from TCL is an evidence-based understanding of consumer needs and the characteristics of target consumer groups. Prior research has shown that, compared to the general population, consumers of products from TCL are typically more highly educated, younger or middle-aged, wealthier, more often female, with young families, and from urban areas (De-Magistris and Gracia, 2016; Erraach et al., 2014; Jelić Milković et al., 2023; Kos Skubic et al., 2018; Tempesta et al., 2010; Torquati et al., 2018; Wiedemann et al., 2023). In addition to these socio-economic and demographic factors, such consumers are also characterised by certain attitudes, preferences, behavioral characteristics, and experiences, namely in evincing high levels of awareness of product quality, concerns about the ethics and impacts of their consumption decisions, and preferences for natural products (Balogh et al., 2016; Granado-Díaz et al., 2022; Jelić Milković et al., 2023; Kilchling et al., 2009; Kos Skubic et al., 2018; Mesías et al., 2013; Wiedemann et al., 2023).

When planning and applying marketing measures within the marketing mix for products from TCL, the three fundamental aims are (1) to highlight the high quality of these products, (2) to increase consumers’ knowledge about the attributes and added values of the food product, and (3) to create greater proximity and relationships between consumers, products, and the landscapes from which the products originate. ‘High quality’ is a unique combination of added values that are mainly the result of traditional local farming and production methods. In particular, the extensive mode of production and processing in this kind of landscapes is reflected in products that are more natural and often have a specific taste. Moreover, this kind of products provide a link between consumers and TCL, give consumers a feeling of locality, familiarity, and sense of belonging.

In order to motivate consumers to buy products from TCL and overcome the three main barriers to purchase and the resulting attitude-behavior gap, marketing management needs to harmonise all four marketing instruments of product policy, price policy, place policy, and promotion policy. The interdependencies of all 4Ps in the marketing mix, and the need to harmonize them to support an overall strategy, can be illustrated in the following scenario, to overcome the limited availability of products from TCL, marketers need to reach new marketplaces (place policy). When marketers follow the value-added pricing strategy (price policy), they can automatically exclude certain markets focused on price-conscious customers. The products must be adapted to the new marketplaces, e.g., the product packaging must be varied, or certain certification systems must be adhered to (product policy). The marketers select communication materials and advertising messages according to the ways these reach the target groups in the new marketplace and the requirements of potential intermediaries (promotion policy).

Drawing on findings from a review of empirical studies, this article has identified four challenges currently limiting scientific investigations into the marketing of products from TCL. Future research should address these challenges (elaborated below) to help inform product marketing, boost consumption, and thus contribute to the preservation of TCL and their multiple socio-economic and environmental benefits.

The first of these challenges relates to the sheer diversity of terms currently used in scientific research of products from TCL. This diversity causes difficulties in examining and especially comparing marketing measures. The conceptual framework developed in this article is proposed as a solid basis to inform and guide further marketing and consumer studies on products from TCL.

Second, the remarkable heterogeneity of TCL and products originating from this kind of landscapes is currently not reflected in scientific consumer studies on marketing measures for these products. This shortcoming relates not only to the great variety of types of products but also to differences in the degree of their processing, as well as the spatial distribution of TCL. Crucially, this study’s focus on European TCL, predominantly reflecting Southern and Western European, high-income contexts, inherently limits its immediate applicability and empirical generalizability to other global contexts. This kind of landscapes and products beyond the Mediterranean area have been significantly underrepresented in the marketing literature to date, with many TCL and products, like fruit, vegetables, and cereals, not represented at all. However, the core principles of the framework in this study addressing consumer knowledge, trust, and overcoming availability barriers by applying a thorough marketing mix-hold potential for broader adaptation.

Third, the findings of the literature review conducted for this article show that most consumer studies on products from TCL have focused primarily on only one of the four P’s of the marketing mix, namely product policy, while price, place, and promotion policy all remain underresearched. Future studies should thus focus on the role of pricing, placement, and promotion measures in gaining greater acceptance of products from TCL among different target groups.

Fourth and finally, this article has made the case that product marketing can play a key role in contributing to the long-term preservation of TCL. For this purpose, findings from marketing and consumer research constitute a sound basis for orienting the value chain of a product specifically to the needs of consumers. Notwithstanding the value of extant research on marketing measures, however, the success of products from TCL requires more interdisciplinary research. Such research should consider the entire value chain and investigate where improvements can be made to increase value for consumers and economic benefits for farmers in these landscapes. This should include investigations of innovative farming and processing practices that reduce production costs while maintaining the high level of ES provided by TCL. Identifying such practices will help make cultivating this sustainable form of land management more attractive to farmers as well as to a broader segment of consumers.