Introduction

Front. Sustain. Food Syst.

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems

Front. Sustain. Food Syst.

2571-581X

Frontiers Media S.A.

10.3389/fsufs.2025.1638093

Original Research

Influence of variety and processing methods on the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)

Mlewa

Stella C.

¹ Formal analysis Data curation Methodology Writing – review & editing Investigation Writing – original draft Conceptualization Mlotha

Vincent

² Data curation Writing – review & editing Software Visualization Formal analysis Maliro

Moses F. A.

³ Supervision Project administration Writing – review & editing Methodology Validation Conceptualization Mwangwela

Agnes M.

² ^* Funding acquisition Project administration Methodology Validation Conceptualization Supervision Writing – review & editing

1Department of Human Nutrition and Health, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi 2Department of Food Science and Technology, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi 3Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Lilongwe, Malawi

*Correspondence: Agnes M. Mwangwela, amwangwela@luanar.ac.mw

29 01 2026

2026

1638093

30 05 2025 16 12 2025 26 12 2025

2026

Mlewa, Mlotha, Maliro and Mwangwela

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Introduction

Sorghum is an underutilised and neglected crop in Malawi. The study assessed how sorghum varieties and processing methods affect the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of stiff porridge.

Methods

Three sorghum varieties, namely Wayawaya, Naliyeti and Pilira 1, were processed into flour as whole grain, dehulled and soaked in water for 6–12 h. This resulted in Nd-S6, Nd-S12, Wd-S6 and Wd-S12 flours, among others. Sensory evaluation of stiff porridge was conducted using a trained panel for the descriptive test and a nine-point hedonic scale to assess consumer acceptance.

Results

Both variety and processing methods significantly influenced consumer acceptance and sensory attributes of sorghum stiff porridge. Stiff porridges prepared from Nd-S6, Nd-S12, Wd-S6 and Wd-S12 were highly acceptable compared to the other stiff porridges (P < 0.001). While variety affected specific sensory attributes, such as colour, aroma, and softness, it did not significantly affect overall consumer acceptance. Soaking, regardless of time, influenced individual consumer liking of stiff porridge attributes, including appearance, taste, texture, and mouthfeel. In contrast, dehulling significantly influenced appearance attributes and not the acceptance of stiff porridge.

Discussion

The results of this study provide guidance for researchers, food processors, and extension workers on selecting appropriate sorghum varieties and processing techniques to enhance sorghum appeal, increase acceptability, and improve utilisation. Further research should examine the effects of processing and variety on the functional properties, digestibility, and shelf life of sorghum flour to determine its potential for promoting the utilisation of this cereal.

consumer acceptance neglected and underutilised crop processing sorghum sensory characteristics stiff porridge Malawian sorghum varieties

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The study was conducted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the primary author to be awarded the degree of Master of Science in Food Science and Human Nutrition at Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) provided financial support for this research. The funder had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

section-at-acceptance

Nutrition and Sustainable Diets

1 Introduction

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), is the fifth most widely grown crop in the world and is among the most cultivated crops in Africa (Bakari et al., 2023). The average global sorghum production is 2.5 t/ha, with some regions exceeding the global average production, such as North America (4.1 t/ha), North Africa and Middle East (5.5 t/ha), in comparison, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa’s sorghum average production is 0.9 t/ha far below the global average (Khalifa and Eltahir, 2023). Global sorghum production has been impacted by several factors, including agricultural resource scarcity, climate change, economic growth and cultural influences, which have affected its usage globally (Mundia et al., 2019). The grain has multiple uses as a dietary staple food for humans, feed for animals and raw materials for industrial applications such as bioethanol production (Kadzo Kazungu et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2023; Tanwar et al., 2023). It also has social and economic values globally, grown as a food security crop due to its drought tolerance and adaptability to environments with erratic rainfall or waterlogging, especially in semi-arid and arid regions (Mundia et al., 2019). Beyond its adaptability to harsh weather conditions, the grain has a high nutritive value; it is predominantly comprised of carbohydrates, making it a great source of energy (Tanwar et al., 2023). The grain on average contains protein (10.4 g/100 g), fat (2.1 g/100 g), ash (1.6 g/100 g), crude fibre (2.0 g/100 g), carbohydrates (70.7 g/100 g), energy (329 kcal), calcium (25 mg), iron (5.4 mg), thiamine (0.38 mg), riboflavin (0.15 mg) and niacin (4.3 mg) (Kulamarva et al., 2009). The nutrient composition of sorghum varies due to environmental factors (such as soil type and climatic conditions), genetic factors, and their interactions (Ng’uni et al., 2011; Nazari et al., 2022). Additionally, sorghum contains phenolic compounds, including phytosterols, policosanols, and anthocyanins, which have a significant impact on human health, preventing certain types of cancer, and it is also associated with reduced risk of nutrition-related chronic diseases (Awika and Rooney, 2004; Lee et al., 2021; Repo-Carrasco-Valencia and Vidaurre-Ruiz, 2019). Sorghum serves dynamic functions within the global agri-food systems due to its adaptability to global climate change, scarcity of water, and has increased its value globally in innovative value chain development, enhancing food security for an increasing proportion of the global population (Repo-Carrasco-Valencia and Vidaurre-Ruiz, 2019).

Africa produces 62% of the sorghum worldwide; however, in East and Southern Africa, sorghum is the third largest cereal crop produced after maize and rice (Orr et al., 2016; Adebo, 2020). It is produced as a crop for resource-limited farmers in East and Southern Africa (Mamo, 2017). Sorghum is also a staple food crop for millions in Africa and South Asia, contributing to the alleviation of malnutrition challenges (Adebo, 2020). Despite sorghum being an important food security and resilient crop, production in sub-Saharan Africa has been low compared to other regions due to variable rainfall, low uptake of improved varieties due to high costs, low use of fertilisers, declining soil fertility and low response rate to agricultural improved practices (Khalifa and Eltahir, 2023; Dembele et al., 2021; Elaine et al., 2021). Although low small-scale production and dependence on rain-fed agriculture have also contributed to low sorghum production, the crop remains an important food crop for smallholder farmers living in regions with erratic rainfall and forms an integral part of traditional diets across African communities (Adebo, 2020; Ndlovu et al., 2020).

Sorghum grain is processed using various methods, and products derived from it range from infant foods to snacks. Assorted foods, including flatbreads, muffins, tortillas, instant porridge, noodles, and biscuits, are made from the sorghum grain, which also helps meet the increased demand for gluten-free foods (Taylor et al., 2006). Other food products are also made from sorghum by combining the grain with legumes or other cereals to enhance the nutritional properties and sensory characteristics of a particular product, thereby improving the health and nutritional status of consumers (Kayitesi et al., 2012). Beer, stiff porridge, and thin porridges are among the most locally made sorghum products (Taylor et al., 2006; Rogé et al., 2016; Ari Akin et al., 2022). Processing the grain not only enhances its nutritional value but also helps to improve quality through value addition, reduction of anti-nutritional factors, and improvement of consumer acceptability (Rashwan et al., 2021). Furthermore, processing improves starch digestibility, water absorption capacity, emulsion activity, oil absorption capacity, and sensory qualities of sorghum flour and its products (Batariuc et al., 2023).

In Malawi, sorghum is primarily produced in the lower Shire valley, particularly in Chikwawa and Nsanje districts, and serves as a reliable staple food. Other districts, such as Zomba, Mzimba, and Kasungu, also produce sorghum, but on a smaller scale (Rogé et al., 2016). Production of sorghum over the past few years has ranged from 100,000 to 1,120,000 metric tonnes annually, with the lower Shire valley being the main sorghum-producing area. Sorghum is among the neglected and underutilised crops in Malawi whose utilisation is limited to locally prepared foods, such as stiff porridge (nsima), thin porridge (phala/thobwa), and beer. Despite sorghum stiff porridge being the most commonly consumed sorghum-based product, little is known about how different locally produced sorghum varieties and various sorghum processing methods influence consumer acceptance and sensory characteristics of sorghum stiff porridge in Malawi. Previous studies on sorghum in Malawi primarily focused on the agronomic performance of different sorghum varieties, neglecting the consumer attributes of sorghum-based foods, including stiff porridge and how these may influence sorghum utilisation (Nkongolo et al., 2008). This is critical, given consumers’ role in the food value chain and how consumer preferences can promote the utilisation of sorghum for sustainable food systems, align consumer needs, increase demand, enhance household dietary diversification and improve food security (Rogé et al., 2016; Tanwar et al., 2023; Kulamarva et al., 2009; Ng’uni et al., 2011; Nazari et al., 2022). The present study, therefore aimed to assess the sensory characteristics of stiff porridges prepared from flour of selected sorghum varieties and to determine how processing methods influence the acceptability of these porridges. Through the sorghum stiff porridge consumer assessment, the study provides new knowledge for enhancing sorghum utilisation, and promoting dietary diversification, thereby improving food and nutrition security.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Collection of sorghum samples

Sorghum samples were collected in the southern region of Malawi, specifically in Chikwawa district. The district is bordered by Mwanza district to the north, Blantyre to the north east, Thyolo to the east, Nsanje to the south and the Mozambique international boundary to the west (Chikwawa District Council, 2020). It is located at an elevation of 112 meters above sea level along the lower flat basin of the Shire river, which is along the Great East African Rift Valley (Chikwawa District Council, 2020). The district was purposively sampled as it is a drought-prone area and traditionally a well-known sorghum-producing district (Zimba et al., 2023). Rainfall is unreliable and varies from 170 mm to 967.6 mm (Chikwawa District Council, 2020). Chikwawa has six Extension Planning Areas (EPAs), Mikalango being the largest where extension workers provide modern agricultural extension services (Chikwawa District Council, 2020). Three sorghum variety samples, namely Pilira 1, Wayawaya, and Naliyeti, were obtained from the Mikalango EPA. Pilira 1 is an improved sorghum variety, while Wayawaya and Naliyeti are local sorghum varieties. Identification of pure sorghum grain samples was facilitated by the Agricultural Extension Development Officer (AEDO) from the Ministry of Agriculture in the district. All the samples were collected from the same EPA to minimise sample geographical variations (Sasia et al., 2025). The choice of sorghum varieties for processing and laboratory analysis was based on the utilization frequency by most households in the area where the consumption pattern study was conducted, which revealed that these three varieties were the most widely consumed (see Figures 1, 2).

Figure 1

Longitude, latitude, and elevation of Mikalango EPA, in Chikwawa district, where sorghum was sampled from farmers.

Map of Chikwawa district in Malawi highlighting Mikalango EPA with an elevation color scale. The left panel zooms in from Malawi districts to Chikwawa EPAs. The right panel shows elevation ranges, with colors from brown (lowest) to purple (highest), spanning from 49-382 meters.

Figure 2

Annual mean temperature and mean solar radiation for Mikalango EPA in Chikwawa district.

Two maps of Mikalango EPA are shown. The left map displays the 2014 annual mean temperature with colors ranging from green at 26.45°C to red at 27.29°C. The right map shows mean daily solar radiation with colors from blue at 19.43 MJ/m²/day to yellow at 19.60 MJ/m²/day. Both maps include scale bars and coordinate grids.

2.2 Sorghum sample processing

Sorghum grain was transported to the LUANAR (Bunda College) home economics laboratory for processing and performing sensory evaluation of stiff porridge. LUANAR is located in Lilongwe, the capital city of Malawi. The site was sampled because it has well-equipped laboratories for processing food, analysing nutrients and convenient for identifying a sensory evaluation panel. The three sorghum varieties were assessed for tannin using the bleach test (Taylor and Taylor, 2008; Waniska et al., 1992). All of tannins. Nutrient composition of sorghum was assessed using the Association of Official Analytical Collaboration (AOAC) methods (Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1990). The pH of the water used for processing sorghum was measured using a portable multiparameter water quality meter (900P Model). The average pH was 7.45 ± 0.31, and the average electrical conductivity (μS/cm) was 126.23 ± 2.41. Average room temperature at Bunda College during the time samples were processed were: 82–85 °F (28–30 °C) (high temperatures) and low temperatures were 58–63 °F (15–17 °C).

The three sorghum grain varieties were processed into flour as whole grain, dehulled, dehulled and washed in water, and dehulled and soaked in water for 6 to 12 h, as shown in Figure 3. Processing methods used were based on data collected from sorghum consumers during a sorghum consumption pattern assessment survey in Chikwawa district where sorghum samples were also collected.

Figure 3

Different methods of processing sorghum grain into flour.

Flowchart detailing sorghum grain processing steps. Begins with winnowing and dehulling, leading to bran separation. Dehulled grains undergo soaking (either 12 or 6 hours) or washing, followed by sun drying. Hammer milling converts grains to flour, followed by sun drying of the flour. Temperature noted as 22 degrees Celsius.

2.3 Preparation of stiff porridge from sorghum flour

Stiff porridge was prepared using the method by Mlotha (2014). The test foods were prepared at a 27% flour-to-73% water ratio. One hundred and fifty grams of flour was weighed using an analytical balance (Sartorius, L01201S, serial number 50511449) and mixed with 500 mL of cold water to form a cold slurry. The mixture was added gradually to 1,000 mL of boiling water in a cooker (Defy Five Twenty, DSS508, serial number AA10240091) while stirring with a wooden spoon until a homogeneous paste formed. The mixture was covered and left to simmer for 15–20 min. The remaining flour (255 g) was added to the stiff porridge as it was stirred. The stiff porridge was left to simmer for 3–5 min on low heat. Samples of stiff porridge weighing about 40 grams were weighed using an analytical balance (Sartorius, L01201S, serial number 50511449).

2.4 Sensory evaluation of stiff porridge 2.4.1 Consumer acceptance test

The consumer acceptance test was conducted to evaluate consumers’ preferences for sorghum stiff porridge prepared from various processed flours. The consumer acceptance test and sample size determination followed a method by Lawless and Heymann (2010). A nine-point hedonic scale was used. The scale ranged from 1 = “extremely disliking sorghum stiff porridge” to 9 = “extremely liking sorghum stiff porridge (Aboubacar et al., 1999). Panellists were recruited to participate in the sensory evaluation of sorghum stiff porridge through campus advertisements. The consumer acceptance test panellists were students from LUANAR, Bunda campus. Consumption of stiff porridge (nsima) from any cereal and willingness to participate in this study were the primary inclusion criteria. Fifteen sorghum stiff porridge samples were prepared from flour from the three sorghum varieties, which were subjected to different methods in this study. Five sorghum flours were randomly selected for the preparation of stiff porridge on each of three consecutive days. These five stiff porridge samples were presented monodically to the panellists. Panellists were given between 30 and 40 grams of test sample, which was served at 60 °C, as stiff porridge is typically served hot.

2.4.2 Descriptive sensory evaluation of sorghum stiff porridge 2.4.2.1 Screening of potential panellists

Sensory characteristics of sorghum stiff porridge were determined using a descriptive test (Lawless and Heymann, 2010). A panel of 12 trained panellists was recruited for this test. Sample size was determined as per the recommendation by Lawless and Heymann (2010). Potential panellists were recruited through campus advertisements. The panellists were students from LUANAR, Bunda campus. Thirty potential panellists were identified to undergo a pretest for descriptive sensory evaluation. A triangle test was used to screen the panellists (Turkish National Agency, 2018). Three samples of sugar solution were presented simultaneously to the panellists. Two samples were prepared from the same formulation, and one from a different formulation. Panellists were asked to indicate which sample was the odd one and which two samples were similar. About 12 g of sugar was dissolved in water (130 mL), thus a 0.09 M solution, and 9 g of sugar was dissolved in 130 mL of water (0.07 M). Each assessor was provided with three samples.

The taste order was provided in such a way that two presentations were possible. The presentations were made in one of the two orders: either two as and one B, or two Bs and one A. From the two presentations, within each presentation, there were three orders, with a single sample tested first, second, and third, resulting in six orders: BAA, ABA, AAB, ABB, BAB, and BBA (Turkish National Agency, 2018). Each sample was assigned a code number, with each assessor receiving a unique code to minimise the influence of one assessor on another. Panellists were selected for their accurate identification of the samples presented in the test.

2.4.2.2 Training of panellists

Out of 30 panellists, only 12 passed the screening phase, thus the triangle test. These panellists underwent a 2-h training session to enhance their understanding of descriptive sensory evaluation and expectations from the research team, and to address factors that could hinder effective sensory evaluation of the stiff porridge. In addition, a 2-h follow-up session was conducted with all panel members, who worked in unison to develop sorghum stiff porridge descriptors and supported the development, pretesting, and finalisation of the descriptive sensory evaluation ballot for sorghum stiff porridge. Panellists were asked to identify and describe the sensory differences of nsima prepared from flour that was processed using different methods (Lawless and Heymann, 2010; Onyeoziri et al., 2021). To enable panellists to identify different descriptors of stiff porridge, samples were prepared by adding sugar, salt, coffee, and fermented maize flour. Panellists were asked to define the sensory descriptors of nsima. The team agreed on which descriptors to use for sensory evaluation. Then the panellists were asked to decide as a group on how to sequence the descriptors on the sensory evaluation questionnaire (Elina et al., 2016). Panellists who participated in the descriptive sensory evaluation were ineligible to participate in the consumer preference test. Throughout the training and sensory evaluation sessions, the research team provided technical support to ensure that sensory evaluation procedures were adhered to as a way of also maintaining the collection of high-quality data.

2.4.2.3 Descriptive sensory evaluation of sorghum stiff porridge

Nine sensory evaluation sessions were conducted for nine consecutive days. These sessions were conducted in a well-lit and a well ventilated room. Random numbers were generated for each sample on a computer. In each session, five stiff porridge samples were presented monodically to panellists. Samples were replicated three times. Stiff porridge samples for sensory evaluation were allocated randomly in these sessions (Chanadang et al., 2016).

2.5 Statistical analysis

A one-way ANOVA was performed on the consumer acceptability and descriptive sensory evaluation data of sorghum stiff porridge using IBM Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 20. The one way ANOVA was conducted to determine if there were significant differences in consumer acceptance and sensory characteristics of sorghum stiff porridge as influenced by variety and processing methods. Differences were considered statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. Further analyses using multivariate tools were done in XLSTAT 2015 version (Addinsoft, Paris, France). Principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on the descriptive data to identify sensory attributes that characterised the stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour. Internal preference mapping procedure was also used to examine consumer preferences of the 15 sorghum stiff porridges prepared using three different methods (Jere et al., 2020).

3 Results and discussion 3.1 Nutrition composition of sorghum

Proximate composition differed among the three sorghum varieties. Pilira 1 contained (g/100 g): 9.83 ± 0.54 moisture, 1.38 ± 0.70 ash, 2.50 ± 1.45 fibre, 3.20 ± 1.36 crude fat, 8.02 ± 0.77 crude protein, and 75.07 ± 3.67 carbohydrate. Naliyeti contained 10.33 ± 0.96 moisture, 1.78 ± 0.88 ash, 2.60 ± 1.43 fibre, 2.67 ± 0.86 fat, 8.46 ± 1.11 crude protein and 74.16 ± 2.99 carbohydrate, while Wayawaya contained 10.58 ± 0.99 moisture, 1.22 ± 0.59 ash, 1.00 ± 0.42 crude fibre, 1.94 ± 0.41 crude fat, 8.85 ± 1.00 protein and 76.43 ± 1.42 carbohydrate. Significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) existed between Wayawaya and the other two sorghum varieties for ash, fibre and fat contents, while no significant differences were observed in moisture, protein and carbohydrate contents.

3.2 Overall consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge

All consumer acceptance test study participants resided within the LUANAR campus, of which 87% were students. Most panellists were males (62%). Overall, stiff porridges prepared from Nd-S6, Nd-S12, Wd-S6, and Wd-S12 sorghum flours were highly acceptable as shown in Table 1. Consumer liking of stiff porridge is influenced by factors such as flavour and textural characteristics (Chanadang et al., 2016). Another study reported individual variations in scoring consumer liking of stiff porridge, such as age, gender, training of enumerators collecting data and enumerators behavior towards respondents (Gunaratna et al., 2016). In the present study, enumerators were trained and readily available during sensory evaluation sessions to support panellists and clarify areas of uncertainty. In addition, at the beginning of each sensory evaluation session, panellists were briefed on the instructions to enhance their knowledge of the ballots.

Table 1

Consumer acceptance of stiff porridge made from sorghum flour of different varieties.

Sample	Appearance	Taste	Aroma	Texture	Mouth feel	Acceptance
Pw	3.63 ± 2.27^a	4.49 ± 2.37^a	4.77 ± 2.36^a	4.92 ± 2.19^a	4.85 ± 2.24^a	3.58 ± 1.96^a
PD	4.01 ± 2.34^a	4.87 ± 2.22^a	5.56 ± 2.05^bcd	5.25 ± 2.09^ab	5.28 ± 2.06^ab	4.00 ± 1.92a^bc
PdW	5.45 ± 2.03^c	4.89 ± 2.21^a	5.11 ± 2.21^ab	5.62 ± 2.19^bc	5.50 ± 2.22^bc	3.87 ± 1.85a^b
Pd-S6	5.26 ± 2.27^bc	4.86 ± 2.36^a	5.25 ± 2.19^abc	5.61 ± 2.13^bc	5.49 ± 2.42^bc	4.20 ± 1.93^bcde
Pd-S12	5.33 ± 2.32^c	5.60 ± 2.27^b	5.77 ± 2.09^cde	5.76 ± 2.02^bcd	5.77 ± 1.92^bcd	4.40 ± 1.85^cdef
Nw	4.72 ± 2.31^b	5.64 ± 2.22^bc	5.69 ± 2.12^bcd	5.80 ± 2.08^bcde	5.43 ± 2.24^bc	4.14 ± 1.78^bcd
ND	6.66 ± 2.23^de	6.58 ± 1.85^e	6.10 ± 2.22^def	6.06 ± 2.05^cdef	5.95 ± 1.88^cde	4.89 ± 1.59^fg
NdW	5.70 ± 1.87^c	5.92 ± 2.03^bcd	6.06 ± 2.04^def	5.94 ± 2.10^cde	6.10 ± 1.95^de	4.63 ± 1.67^defg
Nd-S6	6.65 ± 1.97^de	6.22 ± 2.20^cde	5.96 ± 2.16^def	6.33 ± 2.05^ef	6.27 ± 1.96^de	5.10 ± 1.65^g
Nd-S12	7.03 ± 2.19^e	6.33 ± 2.06^de	6.49 ± 1.95^f	6.58 ± 1.89^f	6.43 ± 1.96^e	5.09 ± 1.72^g
Ww	3.90 ± 2.22^a	4.88 ± 2.10^a	5.61 ± 2.28^dcd	5.92 ± 2.10^bcd	5.45 ± 2.03^a	3.94 ± 1.88^abc
WD	5.57 ± 2.19^c	6.40 ± 1.87^de	5.76 ± 2.18^cd	6.27 ± 1.97^def	6.49 ± 1.82^e	4.68 ± 1.61^efg
WdW	6.38 ± 2.12^d	5.95 ± 2.10^bcd	6.08 ± 2.05^def	5.94 ± 1.98^cde	6.38 ± 1.75^e	4.89 ± 1.81^fg
Wd-S6	6.46 ± 2.03^de	6.44 ± 1.88^de	6.36 ± 1.91^ef	6.35 ± 1.90^ef	6.38 ± 1.91^e	4.97 ± 1.66^g
Wd-S12	6.71 ± 2.35^de	6.35 ± 1.96^de	6.00 ± 2.03^def	6.30 ± 2.05^def	6.23 ± 2.02^de	4.92 ± 1.72^g
P-value	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001

Values are means and standard deviation from 100 panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05. Key: P = Pilira 1, N=Naliyeti, W = Wayawaya, w = whole, D = dehulled, dW = dehulled and washed, d-S6 = dehulled and soaked for 6 h, d-S12 = dehulled and soaked for 12 h. Consumer liking key: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = no like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely. Overall acceptance key: 1 = would eat when forced, 2 = would eat when no other food choices are available, 3 = do not like the food but would it on occasion, 4=, eat if available but would not go out of the way, 5 = like the food and would eat now and then, 6 = would frequently eat the food, 7 = would eat the food at every available opportunity.

3.3 Effect of variety on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge

As summarised in Table 2, variety significantly influenced the individual sensory attributes of sorghum stiff porridge, but not its overall acceptance and mouthfeel. The overall lower liking scores of stiff porridges may be attributed to the familiarity of sensory attributes with similar products (Torrico et al., 2019). Although all consumers reported consuming stiff porridge from other cereals, which was an inclusion criterion for panellists in this study, stiff porridge prepared from maize flour is commonly consumed with sensory characteristics that panellists are already accustomed to, unlike stiff porridge prepared from sorghum. Varietal differences in consumer acceptance of stiff porridge may be attributed to starch composition cultivar differences, which affect the quality of the sorghum product (Dicko et al., 2006). The amylose and amylopectin contents of a variety influence the types of foods that can be prepared from it (Lal et al., 2021). Sorghum grains that are good for making stiff paste are linked to high amylose content (Dicko et al., 2006). Elaine et al. (2021) found a higher correlation between sensory ratings for the appearance, aroma, colour, and cohesiveness of sorghum porridge from different varieties. The correlation coefficients were 0.97, 0.97, 0.96 and 0.98, respectively. Despite the high correlations among other attributes, the study concluded that the most essential attributes for determining consumer acceptance of sorghum porridge are taste, aroma, and texture; this is consistent with our study results.

Table 2

Effect of variety on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge.

Variety	Appearance	Taste	Aroma	Texture	Mouth feel	Acceptance
Pilira 1	3.63 ± 2.27^a	4.49 ± 2.37^a	4.77 ± 2.36^a	4.92 ± 2.19^a	4.85 ± 2.24	3.58 ± 1.96
Naliyeti	4.72 ± 2.31^b	5.64 ± 2.22^b	5.69 ± 2.12^b	5.80 ± 2.08^b	5.43 ± 2.24	4.14 ± 1.78
Wayawaya	3.90 ± 2.22^a	4.88 ± 2.10^a	5.61 ± 2.28^b	5.92 ± 2.10^b	5.45 ± 2.03	3.94 ± 1.88
P-value	0.002	0.001	0.007	0.002	0.088	0.103

Values are means and standard deviation from 100 panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05. Consumer liking key: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = no like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely.

3.4 Effect of processing methods on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge 3.4.1 Effect of soaking on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge

Soaking significantly influenced the overall acceptance and sensory attributes of all sorghum stiff porridge at P < 0.05. Stiff porridge whose grain was soaked was preferred in terms of its appearance, taste, texture and mouthfeel compared to stiff porridge whose grain was not soaked, as shown in Figure 4. Starch gelatinisation and retrogradation in the presence of water affect the texture of stiff porridge (Zhu, 2015). With increasing temperature and water absorption, the granules rupture due to the disordering of the chain organisation. When the gelatinised starch is cooling, the disordered chains undergo re-association through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding (Zhu, 2015).

Figure 4

Effect of soaking on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge. Values are means from 100 panellists. The means are significantly different at P < 0.05. Consumer liking key: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = no like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely.

Bar chart showing mean hedonic scores for sensory attributes of sorghum stiff porridge: appearance, taste, aroma, texture, mouthfeel, and acceptance. Scores are compared for not soaked, six hours soaking, and twelve hours soaking. Twelve hours soaking generally achieves the highest scores, especially in appearance, texture, and acceptance.

Soaking sorghum grains initiates fermentation, thereby imparting desirable attributes to the flour. Processing factors, such as fermentation and germination, have been found to increase the water absorption of flours. Osungbaro et al. (2010) and Ndlovu et al. (2020) reported that fermented sorghum exhibited higher water absorption values compared to the unfermented samples. Fermented sorghum recorded a value of 83.08% as compared to 74.33% in unfermented sorghum flour. The respective water absorption capacities of composite fermented cassava-sorghum flours showed comparable increases relative to those of unfermented sorghum in the cassava-sorghum flour mixture (Osungbaro et al., 2010). This affects the texture of stiff porridge prepared from the flours listed in Figure 4, which shows the effect of processing on various sensory attributes of stiff porridge.

While soaking influenced the overall acceptance of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum, other studies have reported that soaking results in reduced antinutritional components such as phytic acid, tannins, and oxalate, thereby increasing mineral availability and improving in vitro protein digestibility and bio accessibility; this is useful especially for the production of infant and young child foods (Sulieman, 2016; Afify et al., 2011). On the other hand, soaking also results in a significant reduction in iron and zinc contents (Afify et al., 2011).

3.4.2 Effect of dehulling on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge

Figure 5 shows that dehulling only influenced the preference appearance of stiff porridge, but the overall acceptance of stiff porridge did not differ significantly. The efficiency of pericarp removal during decortication influences the quality of stiff porridge with a similar endosperm texture. A study on stiff porridge found that certain varieties of sorghum (SC265 and Sureno) had a similar corneous endosperm texture but differed in the quality of stiff porridge, and this was also dependent on the extent of pericarp removal. Stiff porridge softness was significantly correlated (r = 0.92) with the extent of pericarp removal (Bello et al., 1990). The colour of stiff porridge is a critical quality criterion for consumers; a negative colour evaluation of decorticated sorghum influences the taste, texture, and overall appreciation. Contrary to the results of this study, taste and texture have been reported as essential quality criteria for sorghum-based products by consumers (Zimba et al., 2023). Dehulling has been reported to affect nutrient composition of sorghum by altering its amino acid composition, resulting in decreased amino acid content by 19.8%, improved in vitro protein digestibility and increased in vitro bio accessibility of key phenolic compounds (Siminiuc and Coșciug, 2021; Thomaz dos Santos D’Almeida et al., 2025). Dehulling results in reduced crude fibre, fat and mineral contents (iron, zinc) due to the removal of the hull or seedcoat from the endosperm; which in turn affects its utilisation; fat may affect shelf life by contributing to rancidity and nutrient losses during dehulling and may influence consumer choices as high fibre sorghum food products may potentially be beneficial to diabetic patients due to improved glucose tolerance (Eromosele and Eromosele, 1993; Adebo and Kesa, 2023).

Figure 5

Effect of dehulling on consumer acceptance of sorghum stiff porridge. Values are means and standard deviation from 100 panellists, and means are significantly different at P < 0.05. Consumer liking key: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = no like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely.

Bar chart comparing sensory attributes of whole and dehulled sorghum stiff porridge across six categories: appearance, taste, aroma, texture, mouthfeel, and acceptance. Whole porridge scores higher in appearance and acceptance, with significant differences marked with asterisks. Mean scores and standard deviations are shown for both types.

3.4.3 Effect of washing sorghum grain on consumer acceptance of stiff porridge

Washing had no significant influence on the overall acceptance of stiff porridge except for appearance and mouthfeel attributes, as shown in Figure 6. Washing improves the appearance of stiff porridge by making it lighter in colour due to the removal of the remaining pericarp. However, washing also results in significant crude fibre loss ranging from 1.67 to 2.79%, loss of crude fibre, increases moisture content, but crude fat remains stable (Keyata et al., 2021).

Figure 6

Effect of washing on consumer acceptance of stiff porridge made from different varieties of sorghum flour. Values are means and standard deviation from 100 panellists, and means are significantly different at P < 0.05. Consumer liking key: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = no like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely.

Bar chart comparing hedonic scores of dehulled and dehulled plus washed sorghum porridge across six sensory attributes: appearance, taste, aroma, texture, mouthfeel, and acceptance. Appearance and mouthfeel show significant differences with p-values of 0.01 and 0.03, respectively. Error bars indicate standard deviations.

3.5 Sensory characteristics of stiff porridge prepared from flour of different sorghum varieties 3.5.1 Effect of processing on the appearance attributes of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour

Dehulling significantly improved the appearance attributes of the stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour, as shown in Table 3. Removal of the pericarp during dehulling reduces the creaminess of stiff porridge, thereby making it lighter in colour. The colour of the pericarp is genetically controlled, but processing the grain enhances its appearance attributes (Hikeezi, 2010; McDonough et al., 2004). The initial grain colour also influences the appearance of sorghum products [ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics), 1982]. Sorghum grain colour is due to phenolic flavonoid pigments, anthocyanins and flavanols, which are located in the pericarp, which in turn affects the final appearance of the product being prepared from the sorghum. Decortication improves the colour of stiff porridge because sorghum pericarp contains phenolic compounds that cause an undesirable dark colour, and during decortication, the pericarp is removed (Ari Akin et al., 2022). The extent of decortication contributes significantly to the lightness in colour of sorghum products (Mohamed et al., n.d.). The shininess of stiff porridge may be associated with a light cream colour.

Table 3

The effect of processing on the appearance attributes of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour treated in different ways.

Processing method	Creaminess	Dark speckles	Cream speckles	Shininess	Roughness
Dehulling
Whole	7.59 ± 1.00	4.52 ± 1.91	4.94 ± 2.2	3.34 ± 1.50	4.98 ± 2.05
Dehulled	4.04 ± 2.22	3.24 ± 1.49	3.83 ± 2.18	4.52 ± 1.78	3.88 ± 2.06
P-value¹	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*
Soaking
No soaking	5.74 ± 2.31^b	3.67 ± 1.75^b	4.18 ± 2.25	4.13 ± 1.78^a	4.25 ± 2.12^b
Soaking for 6 h	3.49 ± 1.73^a	3.09 ± 1.20^a	3.85 ± 2.21	5.55 ± 1.70^b	3.20 ± 1.66^a
Soaking for 12 h	3.06 ± 1.71^a	3.39 ± 1.53^ab	3.88 ± 2.15	5.75 ± 1.75^b	2.84 ± 1.38^a
P-value²	<0.001*	0.004*	0.282	<0.001*	<0.001*
Washing
Not washed	6.56 ± 2.01	3.86 ± 1.84	4.83 ± 2.27	3.86 ± 1.72	4.48 ± 2.14
Washed	3.53 ± 1.84	3.25 ± 1.41	3.83 ± 2.17	5.33 ± 1.80	3.26 ± 1.73
P-value³	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*

Values are means and standard deviations from 12 trained panellists and 3 repetitions. Means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different, separated using Fisher’s protected LSD. P-values with a star (*) denote significant differences at P < 0.05. ¹P-value for the independent samples t-test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from dehulled and whole sorghum. ²P-value for One-way ANOVA run on attributes of stiff porridge made from sorghum soaked for different periods. ³P-value for an independent samples t-test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from washed and unwashed sorghum.

Additionally, this study observed that soaking and washing improved the appearance attributes of the stiff porridge. This led to an enhanced colour of its flour due to the removal of pericarp remnants from dehulled grains that may have remained during milling. Soaking dehulled grains in water before milling or grinding the grain into flour improves the whiteness of the flour [ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics), 1982]. Appearance attributes of stiff porridge may influence consumer preferences, consumption frequency, and the types of relish that accompany it. Although dehulling improves consumer acceptability of sorghum and removes antinutrients contained in the outer layer of the grains, the processing method also results in significant losses of dietary fibre and essential micronutrients such as iron, zinc and magnesium (Mayel et al., 2020; Awika et al., 2005).

3.5.2 Effect of processing on aroma attributes of sorghum stiff porridge

Dehulling and washing did not significantly influence the burnt aroma of stiff porridge. Table 4 shows that although a burnt aroma was detected in the stiff porridge subjected to soaking, the mean values were low and nearly insignificant. The burnt aroma flavour results from volatile compounds formed during the maillard reaction of foods (Lina and Min, 2022; Shakoor et al., 2022). Soaking significantly increased the intensity of fermented aroma in the stiff porridge. Fermentation also improves the palatability and nutritional value of food (Shiferaw Terefe and Augustin, 2020). It also results in increased crude fibre, α-amylase activity, minerals, enhances protein digestibility, through the release of bioactive peptides and amino acids, decreases sucrose, oxalates, tannins, and phytates (Nkhata et al., 2018; Ok et al., 2024). Cereal-based food products become more appetising due to improved aroma since volatile compounds are formed during fermentation, thereby contributing to a complex blend of flavours. Diacetyl, acetic acid and butyric acid contribute to the scrumptious aroma of food (Kohajdova and Karovicova, 2007). Fermentation enhances the palatability of food by improving its aroma (Paulos Mokoena et al., 2010). The aroma of well-cooked stiff porridge may be attributed to natural aroma compounds in sorghum that reacted with starch. The extent to which aroma compounds react with starch depends on whether the starch is modified or not (Tietz et al., 2008; Dysted, 2025). Aroma attributes influence consumers’ decisions on whether to eat a particular meal. Natural stiff porridge aroma was significantly higher in stiff porridge whose grain was not washed than in nsima whose grain was washed.

Table 4

Effect of processing on aroma attributes of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour treated in different ways.

Processing method	Sorghum nsima aroma	Burnt aroma	Fermented aroma
Dehulling
Whole	6.68 ± 1.65	1.87 ± 1.64	1.62 ± 1.41
Dehulled	5.84 ± 2.06	1.93 ± 1.70	2.34 ± 1.81
P-value¹	<0.001*	0.785	<0.001*
Soaking
No soaking	6.12 ± 1.97^b	1.91 ± 1.85^b	2.10 ± 1.72^a
Soaking for 6 h	5.78 ± 1.96^ab	3.01 ± 2.68^b	3.44 ± 2.54^b
Soaking for 12 h	5.43 ± 2.17^a	1.43 ± 1.03^a	3.98 ± 2.78^b
P-value²	0.007*	<0.001*	<0.001*
Washing
Not washed	6.41 ± 1.80	1.86 ± 1.72	1.84 ± 1.54
Washed	5.50 ± 2.17	2.01 ± 1.90	2.65 ± 1.94
P-value³	<0.001*	0.505	<0.001*

Values are means and standard deviations from 12 trained panellists and 3 repetitions. P-values with a star (*) denote significant differences at P < 0.05. ¹P-value for independent samples t test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from dehulled and whole sorghum. ²P-value for One-way ANOVA run on attributes of stiff porridge made from sorghum soaked for different periods. ³P-value for independent t test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from washed and unwashed sorghum.

3.5.3 Effect of processing on texture attributes of sorghum stiff porridge

Dehulling significantly increased the stickiness and springiness of the stiff porridge from sorghum, but not its firmness, as shown in Table 5. These results differ from those of Bello et al. (1990) found that decortication improves the firmness of stiff porridge. The greater pericarp (bran) content in whole flour contributed to differences in texture; presumably, the bran competes with starch for moisture, thereby limiting solubilisation and retrogradation.

Table 5

Effect of processing on texture attributes of sorghum stiff porridge.

Processing method	Firmness	Springiness	Stickiness	Smoothness	Compactness
Dehulling
Whole	5.06 ± 2.04	4.54 ± 2.38	2.96 ± 2.23	5.88 ± 1.75	6.20 ± 1.97
Dehulled	4.91 ± 2.13	5.16 ± 2.23	3.72 ± 2.40	5.89 ± 1.93	6.07 ± 1.87
P-value¹	0.561	0.021*	0.006*	0.968	0.551
Soaking
No soaking	4.96 ± 2.10	4.95 ± 2.30	3.47 ± 2.37^a	5.89 ± 1.87^a	6.11 ± 1.90
Soaking for 6 h	4.73 ± 2.04	5.32 ± 2.11	4.79 ± 2.60^b	6.80 ± 1.72^b	6.10 ± 2.02
Soaking for 12 h	4.62 ± 2.02	5.39 ± 2.16	4.80 ± 2.6^b	6.73 ± 1.74^b	5.89 ± 2.03
P-value²	0.279	0.115	<0.001*	<0.001*	0.571
Washing
Not washed	5.05 ± 2.12	4.93 ± 2.37	3.17 ± 2.28	5.75 ± 1.81	6.18 ± 1.93
Washed	4.77 ± 2.04	5.00 ± 2.13	4.08 ± 2.45	6.17 ± 1.97	5.97 ± 1.85
P-value³	0.263	0.801	0.001*	0.057	0.349

Values are means and standard deviations from 12 trained panellists and 3 repetitions. Means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different separated using Fisher’s protected LSD. P-values with a star (*) denote significant differences at P < 0.05. ¹P-value for independent samples t test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from dehulled and whole sorghum. ²P-value for One-way ANOVA run on attributes of stiff porridge made from sorghum soaked for different periods. ³P-value for independent samples t test run on attributes of stiff porridge made from washed and unwashed sorghum.

On the other hand, all processing methods had no significant effect on the firmness of stiff porridge. The firmness of sorghum stiff porridge is affected by the water-to-flour ratio (Mohamed et al., 2016). All stiff porridges were prepared using the same water-to-flour ratio, despite the grain being subjected to different processing methods. A higher concentration of flour results in higher values of firmness in porridge (Mohamed et al., 2016). Fortification also tends to increase the firmness of stiff porridge. Anyango et al. (2011) found that firmness of ugali fortified with cowpea flour increased by 45% and 17%, respectively, when assessed by TA-XT2 Texture Analyser and the descriptive sensory panel. The flour used in the present study was not fortified. The compactness of sorghum stiff porridge is influenced by an increase in gelatinisation temperatures of sorghum starch granules. Gelatinisation temperature is a physical property of starch in which starch granules begin to swell irreversibly in hot water within temperatures of 55 °C to 69 °C to intermediate 70 °C to 74 °C, or as high as 75 °C to 79 °C (Bocevska et al., 2009). Gelatinisation temperature and cooking time are positively correlated (He et al., 2018). The water-to-flour ratio affects the compactness and stiffness of porridge. The social and cultural preferences of different consumer groups in sub-Saharan Africa also influence these proportions (Calvin, 2014). The effect of soaking on the stiffness of stiff porridge is more significant when grains are soaked for longer hours. Fermenting grains for 16 to 24 h enhances gelation capacity, a crucial attribute for preparing flour in food systems such as pudding and snacks, which require stiffening and gelling (Elkhalifa et al., 2005). In addition, fermenting grains for more than 16 h reduces the water-binding capacity of sorghum flour by approximately 7% (P < 0.05). The addition of other grain types significantly influences texture attributes, such as springiness and cohesiveness in porridge (Shim and Lim, 2013).

3.5.4 Effect of processing on taste attributes of sorghum stiff porridge

Processing had no significant influence on the well-cooked taste of stiff porridge, as indicated in Table 6. The taste of well-cooked stiff porridge may be attributed to the time required for cooking and to the interactions of starch with water under heat, which result in a well-cooked stiff porridge paste. Although the statistical analysis indicates significant differences in bitter taste intensities between the dehulled and washed stiff porridges, the actual mean intensity values were relatively low, suggesting that the bitterness, although statistically significant, may not be perceptually strong. This is because all varieties used in preparing stiff porridge were tannin-free. Storage of processed flour significantly contributes to the off taste of stiff porridge. Flour stored for more than three months has an off taste and is mostly not acceptable to consumers (Ocheme, 2007). This study utilised sorghum flour within one week of processing. A fermented taste was noticeably present in the soaked grains. The sourness of stiff porridge is due to the activity of lactic acid during fermentation.

Table 6

Effect of processing on taste attributes of sorghum stiff porridge.

Processing method	Well-cooked nsima taste	Bitterness	Burnt taste	Fermented taste
Dehulling
Whole	6.18 ± 1.72	1.58 ± 1.21	1.54 ± 1.16	1.44 ± 0.99
Dehulled	6.02 ± 1.90	1.13 ± 0.56	1.75 ± 1.65	2.28 ± 1.75
P-value¹	0.466	<0.001*	0.223	<0.001*
Soaking
No soaking	6.07 ± 1.83	1.28 ± 0.86	1.68 ± 1.50^a	2.00 ± 1.58^a
Soaking for 6 h	6.02 ± 2.18	1.15 ± 0.65	2.38 ± 2.17^b	3.14 ± 2.08^b
Soaking for 12 h	5.73 ± 2.24	1.17 ± 0.71	1.32 ± 0.67^a	3.62 ± 2.24^c
P-value²	0.308	0.183	<0.001*	<0.001*
Washing
Not washed	6.11 ± 1.82	1.37 ± 0.96	1.61 ± 1.31	1.73 ± 1.34
Washed	6.00 ± 1.84	1.11 ± 0.56	1.84 ± 1.80	2.57 ± 1.89
P-value³	0.628	0.013*	0.193	<0.001*

3.5.5 Effect of processing on mouthfeel attributes of sorghum stiff porridge

Dehulling, soaking, and washing significantly resulted in a softer, less coarse, and less gritty porridge, as summarised in Table 7. Through the processing of grains, the extent to which starch absorbs water declines, thereby resulting in a soft paste of stiff porridge. Milling the grains changes starch properties such as gelatinisation, solubility and swelling power, which in turn affect sensory attributes of sorghum products (Li et al., 2014). Although sieve size and milling methods, such as hammer or roller milling, used when milling the flour, contribute to differences in the coarseness of sorghum flour (Calvin, 2014; Kebakile, 2008). The flours used in this study were processed with the same sieve size and milling method.

Table 7

Effect of processing on mouthfeel attributes of sorghum stiff porridge.

Processing method	Softness	Coarseness	Grittiness
Dehulling
Whole	5.78 ± 1.87	5.42 ± 2.06	5.45 ± 2.00
Dehulled	6.25 ± 1.95	4.43 ± 2.18	4.49 ± 2.10
P-value¹	0.040*	<0.001*	<0.001*
Soaking
No soaking	6.09 ± 1.94^a	4.76 ± 2.19^b	4.81 ± 2.11^b
Soaking for 6 h	7.17 ± 1.61^b	3.19 ± 1.58^a	3.22 ± 1.68^a
Soaking for 12 h	7.07 ± 1.70^b	3.03 ± 1.47^a	3.30 ± 1.63^a
P-value²	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*
Washing
Not washed	5.88 ± 1.89	5.08 ± 2.16	5.16 ± 2.10
Washed	6.93 ± 1.78	3.43 ± 1.80	3.54 ± 1.80
P-value³	<0.001*	<0.001*	<0.001*

3.5.6 Effect of processing on the aftertaste of sorghum stiff porridge

Processing significantly reduced the gritty residue after taste of sorghum stiff porridge. Stiff porridge prepared from whole-grain flour had a high intensity of aftertaste attributes (Table 8). On the other hand, processing led to an increased intensity in fermented aftertaste. The presence of gritty residues in stiff porridge may also be because of the sieve size (8 mm sieve) used during the milling of sorghum flour. Using the appropriate sieve size for grain milling is crucial, as it significantly affects the quality of the end product.

Table 8

Effect of processing on aftertaste of sorghum stiff porridge.

Processing method	Sorghum nsima aftertaste	Gritty residues	Fermented aftertaste
Dehulling
Whole	5.04 ± 2.06	5.26 ± 1.75	1.35 ± 0.72
Dehulled	4.47 ± 1.90	4.38 ± 2.07	2.00 ± 1.40
P-value¹	0.015*	<0.001*	<0.001*
Soaking
No soaking	4.66 ± 1.97	4.67 ± 2.01^b	1.78 ± 1.25^a
Soaking for 6 h	4.48 ± 1.92	3.20 ± 1.50^a	2.68 ± 1.92^b
Soaking for 12 h	4.52 ± 1.88	3.34 ± 1.71^a	2.94 ± 2.00^b
P-value²	0.647	<0.001*	<0.001*
Washing
Not washed	4.76 ± 2.01	5.05 ± 1.99	1.63 ± 1.10
Washed	4.45 ± 1.88	3.90 ± 1.83	2.10 ± 1.47
P-value³	0.181	<0.001*	<0.001*

3.6 Effect of variety on sensory characteristics of stiff porridge

The genetic makeup of a variety determines the appearance of a grain, and this, in turn, influences the colour of the product made from that grain. Wayawaya had a significantly paler cream colour, seconded by Naliyeti as shown in Figure 7. Anyango et al. (2011) found that the sorghum cultivar influences the appearance of stiff porridge. Stiff porridges made with red, tannin-rich sorghum (NS 5511) were darker in colour, stiffer, more cohesive, less sticky, springier, rough-textured, more strongly flavoured, with more white specks, and had more powdery residue. Stiff porridge prepared from white, tan-plant sorghum (Orbit) was characterised by lighter colour, dark specks, stickiness and was generally less firm. The dark colour intensity of tannin sorghum stiff porridge may be attributed to the staining of the porridges by phenolic pigments (anthocyanins) present in the pericarp of red sorghum grain.

Figure 7

Effect of variety on appearance attributes of stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Radar chart comparing three varieties: Pilira 1, Naliyeti, and Wayawaya across five attributes. Attributes include Nsim Colour, Dark Speckles Presence, Cream Speckle Presence, Shininess, and Roughness. Values vary, with Nsim Colour showing Pilira 1 at 5.60, Naliyeti at 53.87, and Wayawaya at 64.69.

Pericarp colour and stiffness, the presence of a pigmented testa, endosperm colours, and plant and glume secondary colours are the primary genetic factors influencing grain appearance. Other factors that affect the appearance of the grain include environmental factors such as humidity, alternate wetting and drying, insects, mould, and sprout damage (Befikadu, n.d.; Mohapatra et al., 2017). This, in turn, affects the appearance of the product made from sorghum.

All sensory attributes are significantly different at P < 0.05.

3.6.1 Effect of variety on the aroma of sorghum stiff porridge

Variety significantly increased the intensity of the aroma of sorghum stiff porridge. A fermented aroma was detected in local varieties (Naliyeti and Wayawaya) more than in the improved variety (Pilira 1), as shown in Table 9. Although the results reveal significant differences (P < 0.001) in burnt aroma among stiff porridges prepared from flour of the three sorghum varieties, the overall mean intensity values were low, indicating that the aroma was generally weak across all samples.

Table 9

Effect of variety on aroma on stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Variety	Sorghum nsima aroma	Burnt aroma	Fermented aroma
Pilira 1	6.08 ± 1.89^b	1.44 ± 1.18^a	3.53 ± 2.73^b
Naliyeti	5.53 ± 2.23^a	2.79 ± 2.58^c	2.35 ± 2.05^a
Wayawaya	6.11 ± 1.91^b	1.88 ± 1.73^b	2.37 ± 1.80^a
P-value	0.010	<0.001	<0.001

Values are means and standard deviations from 12 trained panellists and 3 repetitions. Means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05.

Differences in the aroma of sorghum stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties were also noted in a study by Kebakile et al. (2008) where the branny aroma from stiff porridge differed by sorghum variety.

3.6.2 Effect of variety on the taste of sorghum stiff porridge

Variety significantly intensified the springiness and stickiness of sorghum stiff porridge. Stiff porridge prepared from Wayawaya sorghum flour was significantly springier than stiff porridge prepared from Naliyeti and Pilira flours (Table 10). These results differ from those of Mohamed et al. (2016) who found that the cultivar has a highly significant effect on porridge firmness. The differences may also arise because this study employed human sensory analysis, whereas the comparative study utilised an Instron Universal Compression Testing Machine to assess porridge firmness. Furthermore, differences in the physical properties of the grain may influence the texture attributes of stiff porridge. Corn and hard endosperm of sorghum grain positively correlate with the firmness of the grain. Hard grains produce firm porridges due to a complex and less water-permeable protein starch matrix (Yang et al., 2024; Elkhalifa et al., 2004). Smoothness and stiffness of stiff porridge did not differ among the three sorghum varieties.

Table 10

Effect of variety on texture of stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Variety	Firmness	Springiness	Stickiness	Smoothness	Compactness
Pilira 1	4.98 ± 2.04	4.89 ± 2.27^a	4.01 ± 2.53^ab	6.13 ± 1.86	6.14 ± 1.98
Naliyeti	4.84 ± 2.11	4.97 ± 2.35^a	3.50 ± 2.48^a	6.11 ± 2.00	6.06 ± 2.01
Wayawaya	4.72 ± 2.07	5.49 ± 2.05^b	4.48 ± 2.60^b	6.48 ± 1.71	6.00 ± 1.87
P-value	0.505	0.023	0.001	0.101	0.780

Values are means and standard deviation from 12 trained panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05.

3.6.3 Effect of variety on the taste of stiff porridge

Sorghum stiff porridge from Wayawaya had a well-cooked nsima taste compared to other varieties, as indicated by its high mean score values in Table 11. Despite subjecting all stiff porridges to the same cooking time, panellists rated the cooked nsima differently across the three sorghum varieties. Similarly, the fermented taste was felt more strongly in Pilira 1 than in Naliyeti and Wayawaya. The well-cooked taste of stiff porridge may be influenced by the extent to which gel formation has taken place during the cooking of the porridge. This may also be due to differences in endosperm hardness or softness of grains, which can determine starch gelatinization.

Table 11

Effect of variety on taste of stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Variety	Well-cooked nsima taste	Bitterness	Sourness	Burnt taste	Fermented taste
Pilira 1	5.19 ± 2.20^a	1.30 ± 0.90	1.33 ± 0.86	1.37 ± 1.04^a	2.97 ± 2.17^b
Naliyeti	6.17 ± 1.80^b	1.25 ± 0.84	1.43 ± 0.96	2.44 ± 2.12^b	2.38 ± 1.90^a
Wayawaya	6.61 ± 1.66^c	1.15 ± 0.62	1.43 ± 0.85	1.44 ± 1.11^a	2.33 ± 1.73^a
P-value	<0.001*	0.188	0.447	<0.001*	<0.002*

Values are means and standard deviation from 12 trained panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05. *P < 0.05 denotes a statistically significant difference in the sorghum stiff porridge taste.

3.6.4 Effect of variety on the mouthfeel of sorghum stiff porridge

There were significant differences in the mouthfeel of sorghum stiff porridges. Softness, coarseness, and grittiness varied among the three sorghum varieties, as indicated in Table 12. Stiff porridge prepared from Wayawaya was softer, less coarse and less gritty than stiff porridge from Pilira 1 and Naliyeti. Physical properties of the grain contribute to mouthfeel attributes of the porridge. The hardness or softness of sorghum endosperm has a significant impact on the sensory characteristics of foods prepared from this type of flour.

Table 12

Effect of variety on mouthfeel of stiff porridge prepared from flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Variety	Softness	Coarseness	Grittiness
Pilira 1	6.38 ± 1.82^a	4.31 ± 2.04^b	4.60 ± 2.10^b
Naliyeti	6.20 ± 2.01^a	4.51 ± 2.23^b	4.59 ± 2.18^b
Wayawaya	6.93 ± 1.78^b	3.48 ± 1.92^a	3.39 ± 1.71^a
P-value	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001

Values are means and standard deviation from 12 trained panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05.

3.6.5 Effect of variety on the aftertaste of stiff porridge

Variety influenced the fermented aftertaste and presence of gritty residue, but did not affect the sorghum nsima aftertaste, as indicated in Table 13. Sorghum stiff porridge gritty residues were more intensely felt in Wayawaya stiff porridge than in stiff porridge prepared from Naliyeti and Pilira 1 sorghum flours.

Table 13

Effect of variety on aftertaste of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour of different varieties (n = 12).

Variety	Sorghum nsima after taste	Gritty residues	Fermented after taste
Pilira 1	4.53 ± 1.89	4.46 ± 2.04^b	2.68 ± 1.96^b
Naliyeti	4.58 ± 1.95	4.51 ± 2.00^b	2.07 ± 1.56^a
Wayawaya	4.67 ± 1.99	3.38 ± 1.68^a	1.84 ± 1.24^a
P-value	0.777	<0.001	<0.001

Values are means and standard deviation from 12 trained panellists and means with different superscripts in the same column are significantly different at P < 0.05.

3.7 Principal component analysis of sorghum stiff porridge

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the panel mean sensory attributes reveals clear differences among stiff porridges based on the sorghum flour type. The first two principal components accounted for a substantial proportion of the total variance, highlighting key sensory attributes that contributed to sample separation. PC 1 explains 72.3 percent of the variance in the data set, and 5.3% of the variation in consumers of stiff porridge as shown in Figure 8. Processing and variety influenced consumer acceptance of stiff porridge. Stiff porridges prepared from Wayawaya and Naliyeti flours, which were processed, were more preferred by consumers than stiff porridges prepared from Pilira 1. Although Pilira 1 sorghum grains were also processed, this did not significantly influence the consumer preference for stiff porridges prepared from Pilira 1 sorghum flour.

Figure 8

Principal component analysis of sorghum stiff porridge-consumer preference of sorghum stiff porridge.

Scatter plot showing data points distributed across two principal components: PC1 (72.3%) on the x-axis and PC2 (5.3%) on the y-axis. Black diamonds and orange circles represent different groups. An orange cluster is highlighted within a green ellipse on the right side.

Consumer acceptance of stiff porridge is related to different sensory attributes of a product. The aforementioned sorghum stiff porridges were preferred for various sensory attributes, including fermented flavour, softness, and smoothness (Figure 9). One essential requirement for the adoption of any new sorghum cultivar by farmers is consumer acceptance. When screening cultivars for improved agronomic practices, it is crucial to consider the characteristics of the grain that can significantly impact consumer acceptability (Carneiro et al., 2020). This information is particularly important when developing other sorghum-flour-based products, as it will influence consumer preferences for sorghum-based foods.

Figure 9

Relationship between sorghum stiff porridge and its descriptors.

Biplot illustrating sensory and instrumental attributes on two axes: F1 (50.46%) and F2 (18.78%). Red and blue points represent different attributes, such as "well_cooked_taste," "burnt_aroma," and "firmness," distributed across the plot. A circle encompasses certain points on the top left. Main clusters are visible around the origin and the top left quadrant.

4 Conclusion and recommendations

The various sensory attributes of food play a crucial role in influencing consumer preferences. In this study, both variety and processing methods influenced consumer acceptability and sensory characteristics of stiff porridge prepared from sorghum flour. Overall consumer acceptance varied significantly across the fifteen stiff porridges, with Nd-S6, Nd-S12, Wd-S6, and Wd-S12 being highly acceptable relative to the other stiff porridges. Variety influenced the individual sensory attributes of sorghum stiff porridge, but not its overall acceptance and taste. Naliyeti stiff porridge received significantly higher liking scores than Wayawaya and Pilira 1. Soaking, regardless of time, influenced individual consumers’ liking of stiff porridge attributes such as appearance, taste, aroma, texture, and mouthfeel, whereas dehulling significantly influenced only appearance and not acceptance or the other sensory attributes (taste, mouthfeel, texture). Grain washing affected only the appearance and mouthfeel of stiff porridge.

Variety influenced color, aroma, stickiness, softness and gritty residues of sorghum stiff porridge. Wayawaya and Naliyeti had significantly higher appearance score attributes than Pilira 1. Furthermore, processing methods such as dehulling and soaking affected the shininess, creaminess, fermented aroma, and compactness of the stiff porridge. Assessing the interaction between consumer liking and sensory attributes, the study found that stiff porridges, which were highly accepted (from Naliyeti and Wayawaya) and had been dehulled and washed, exhibited sensory attributes such as smoothness, fermented flavour, and stickiness.

The findings of this study provide insights into how sorghum variety and processing methods influence consumer acceptability of stiff porridge. By identifying specific combinations, such as porridges made from Naliyeti and Wayawaya sorghum varieties that have undergone dehulling and washing, and yielding the most favourable sensory profiles, the research highlights practical strategies for improving consumer satisfaction. Notably, while individual sensory attributes were significantly affected by variety and processing, overall consumer acceptance was not always aligned, emphasizing the need to consider both sensory analysis and consumer preferences in product development.

The results of this study can guide breeders, food processors, and extension workers in selecting sorghum varieties and processing techniques that enhance the appeal and nutritional potential of sorghum-based foods. Further research should examine the functional properties of these sorghum varieties and their potential to promote the development of sorghum-based products. The effects of processing and the variety of sorghum should be further explored to ascertain their digestibility, shelf life of sorghum flour, and glycaemic index.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The study involved human participants, and its protocol was reviewed and approved by the Faculty of Food and Human Sciences at LUANAR prior to data collection. Written informed consent was obtained from all the study participants for the descriptive sensory analysis and consumer acceptance evaluation. The study was conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.

Author contributions

SM: Formal analysis, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. VM: Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Software, Visualization, Formal analysis. MM: Supervision, Project administration, Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Validation, Conceptualization. AM: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Methodology, Validation, Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1638093/full#supplementary-material

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Edited by: Leyla Nazari, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Iran

Reviewed by: Jiaqi Shen, Guizhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China

Obsuman Damena Muleta, Jimma University, Ethiopia