This study therefore explored the complex linkages between climate change and food systems in Africa with special focus on production. The study assessed the effects of climate change on crop and livestock production. It also examined how climate-related risks and trends affect various components of the food system, and what institutional mechanisms can support transformative resilience. Finally, the paper establishes adaptation and mitigation strategies vital in managing the adverse effects of climate change. The following research questions were addressed to show a clear link between climate change and its effects on food systems in Africa:

To comprehensively understand these attributes, this paper is presented in the following sections; introduction, methodology, results, discussion and concluding remarks and recommendations.

The review focused on how climate change affects African food systems. It explored how changes driven by climate impact agricultural productivity and food availability across the continent. To understand these effects fully, the review looked at how various regions in Africa experience these impacts based on climate differences, crop types, and the adaptation strategies used to manage the different factors contributing to climate change.

The systematic review was based on only literature from peer-reviewed journals. Google scholar, Science direct, Scopus databases and gray literature were used to search and retrieve relevant literature. Search terms included combinations of the following keywords: “climate change AND food systems,” “climate change AND Africa,” “agricultural production AND climate change,” and “mitigation measures AND climate impacts.” The systematic review concentrated on literature published between 2014 and 2024 to ensure inclusion of current research as climate science keeps on revolving rapidly while also considering foundational studies that provide historical context.

To keep the review focused and relevant, the inclusion and exclusion criteria to guide in retrieving information for the study were pre-determined. Literature that specifically addressed the impacts of climate change on African food systems was included. The review also included: Peer-reviewed articles that investigated the relationship between climate change and food security in Africa. Studies that provide insights into how climate change alters agricultural production patterns and food security. Articles that explore adaptation measures and strategies within food systems were also included in this systematic analysis.

On the other hand, the review excluded studies that did not focus on Africa or did not examine the relationship between climate change, agricultural productivity and food systems. Review papers and theoretical papers without empirical evidence were not included.

The extracted data were organized into thematic areas to facilitate synthesis and enhance clarity. This process highlighted the impact of climate change on specific areas, allowing the authors to develop a detailed discussion along with practical recommendations. The themes included; (i) the impact of a compromised African Agri-Food system; (ii) climate change and the food environment; (iii) The economic impact of climate change on food affordability; (iv) climate change, food utilization and safety; (v) Mitigation measures. In addition to these thematic areas, the systematic review provided guidance on policy that governments on the continent can follow to improve the current food systems as we know them.

To demonstrate how the articles were selected. The authors developed a PRISMA flow diagram that shows a step-by-step approach until the final articles were selected. The flow diagram also presents reasons why some articles were left out despite being found following the search using the combination of key words that was conducted on google scholar search engine for academic research.

To come up with the actual articles for this systematic review. A data extraction table was developed with different columns to capture the names of authors, year of article publication, geographic location, methodology, study focus areas, key findings and study limitations. The data extraction can be found in the repository that was created to house all relevant files that were used in this systematic review.

Following a full-text review, the studies included in this systematic review were independently assessed by all the authors of this article. Among the 17 articles included in the present systematic review, 9 used mixed methods, 5 was purely qualitative, and 3 used purely quantitative approaches for data collection. All studies included in this systematic review were cross-sectional in design. The studies had varying climate change and food security focus areas ranging from the different roles of key players and stakeholders from production to consumption of various foods that later translate into food security at national and continental levels. Therefore, the appropriate version of the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale was used for the quality assessment of these studies. This risk of bias tool covers three domains: selection criteria, comparability criteria, and outcome/exposure criteria, where each study is scored for each domain by stars. The selection criteria were allotted a maximum of four stars, comparability criteria a maximum of two stars, and outcome criteria a maximum of four stars. Table 1 presents the quality assessment ratings for each study that was included in this systematic review. Studies with 7–9 stars are rated as of high quality, studies with 4–6 stars are rated as being of moderate quality while studies with 0–3 stars are rated as of low quality.

Following a full-text review, the studies included in this systematic review were independently assessed by all the authors (MC, MM, MM, RC, KM, MB, DK, BM, WB, and WK). The selected studies had varying focus areas on the effects of climate change on African Food Systems capturing various areas that play a crucial role in production of food to the point it reaches the consumer.

Agriculture is a critical sector in Africa, contributing up to 40% of the continent’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employing over 70% of its labor force (Nash et al., 2013). With over 60% of Africans living in rural areas, agriculture plays a key role in rural development, poverty reduction, and empowerment of women and youth (Diao et al., 2016). However, climate change has increasingly threatened the agri-food systems sector, with prolonged droughts, erratic rainfall, and extreme weather events reducing yields and limiting growth prospects (Malhi et al., 2021). Climate change induces biotic and abiotic stresses, including rising temperatures, altered precipitation, increased heat waves, shifting pest populations, and atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) and Ozone fluctuations (Rani et al., 2020). These changes have significantly impacted agricultural productivity, leading to food production declines and rising food prices (Thornton et al., 2018). Droughts and temperature increases have reduced yields in the Sahel region, while cyclones and dry spells have affected Southern Africa, including Africa (Agnolucci et al., 2024).

The impact of climate change has contributed to worsening food insecurity and malnutrition (Owino et al., 2022). The World Health Organization reported that undernourishment in Africa increased from 15.6 percent in 2014 to 19.7 percent in 2022. Stunting in children under five remained high at 30 percent, with Central Africa recording the highest rate at 37.4 percent (Sotiraki et al., 2022). These statistics emphasize the need for urgent adaptation and mitigation measures to protect food security (FAO, AUC, ECA, WFP, 2023). From 2019 to 2023, staple food production declined across Southern Africa (Table 1) due to climate-related shocks, particularly El Niño with key crops such as maize, wheat, rice, cassava, sorghum, and millet suffering fluctuations in yields. In 2023, all five staple crops saw reductions in South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Africa due to El Niño (Mbow et al., 2020). Africa experienced significant crop losses in 2022 and 2023, as confirmed by assessments by the Ministry of Agriculture through the Agriculture Production Estimates Survey (APES).

Africa remains the world’s hungriest continent, with diets that are both unaffordable and inaccessible for many households and with food insecurity and undernutrition closely linked to unsustainable food systems (Mensah, 2021; Bongaarts, 2020). Rapidly intensifying climate change manifest in rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and increasingly frequent floods, cyclones, droughts, and dry spells has further impaired these systems, widening the gap between attainable and actual farm yields (Moyo and Chirwa, 2025). Although these pressures are continent-wide, the severity, timing, and dominant hazards differ markedly by region, shaping distinct vulnerabilities and policy needs.

In recent years, in Southern Africa, El Niño and La Niña cycles have brought successive droughts that sharply reduced maize and sorghum harvests in South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, prolonging the lean season and increasing dependence on humanitarian relief (Mugiyo et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2025). West Africa’s Sahel faces progressive aridification and soil degradation, where chronic water deficits and recurrent multi-year droughts depress millet and sorghum and yields and necessitate intensive soil- and water-restoration practices such as half-moon bunds (Elagib et al., 2024; Ayoumbissi Keugmeni et al., 2025). East Africa has endured alternating extremes with a record multi-season drought from 2020 to 2023 followed by destructive floods in 2023–24 which decimated crops and livestock and triggering widespread displacement (Odongo et al., 2025). North Africa, while less drought-prone in the short term, faces chronic water scarcity and rising heat stress that threaten irrigated cereal and horticultural systems in Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt, where groundwater depletion and upstream Nile variability compound the risks (Townend et al., 2023; Daoudy et al., 2024).

These regional experiences show clear divergences. Southern Africa’s vulnerability is tied to high dependence on rain-fed maize and the strong influence of natural climate pattern involving periodic fluctuations in sea surface temperatures in the Central and Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean which occurs every 2–7 years called ENSO cycle. The Sahel grapples with long-term desertification and fragile dryland soils; East Africa contends with the unpredictability of rapid swings between drought and flood; and North Africa is constrained by structural water scarcity and escalating heat extremes. Socio-economic contexts also diverge: for example, North African countries often have higher irrigation coverage and more developed markets, while many Sahelian communities rely on subsistence rain-fed farming with limited infrastructure (Sivakumar, 2020).

Yet there are important common grounds. Across all regions, erratic rainfall and shortened drying windows heighten post-harvest losses and food-safety hazards, including increased aflatoxin contamination in grains and legumes (Mugiyo et al., 2023). Undernourishment has risen continent-wide from 15.6% in 2014 to 19.7% in 2022 while child stunting remains stubbornly high at about 30%, peaking at 37% in Central Africa (Hassan et al., 2023). Market disruptions and production shocks have elevated food prices everywhere, eroding the affordability of nutrient-rich diets.

Adaptation responses likewise exhibit both shared themes and region-specific pathways. Southern Africa has pioneered anticipatory action linked to ENSO forecasts and the adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties and small-scale irrigation (Mugiyo et al., 2023). Sahelian countries are scaling traditional soil- and water-conservation methods to restore degraded land and stabilize yields (Ayoumbissi Keugmeni et al., 2025). In East Africa, livelihood diversification such as Kenya’s emerging coastal seaweed farming and climate-risk financing provide alternative income streams and buffers against shocks (Nyambura, 2025). North African strategies emphasize water-use efficiency, drip irrigation, and high-value horticulture, though these face governance and resource constraints (Townend et al., 2023; Daoudy et al., 2024). Despite the diversity of approaches, all regions converge on the need for stronger early-warning systems, climate-smart agriculture, and social protection measures to reduce vulnerability and stabilize food supplies. Figure 2 shows the hunger hotspots on the African continent as of 2022.

Furthermore, climate change has created favorable conditions for pests such as locusts and fall armyworms (Skendžić et al., 2021; Adunola et al., 2021; Zanzana et al., 2024), leading to their multiplication and a subsequent reduction in food crop production. This is largely due to climate conditions like drought and erratic rainfall, which stress plants and create entry points for pests, including stalk borers and fall armyworms. In addition, the changing climate conditions cause pests like locusts to migrate to human fields as their natural habitats in wild areas become desiccated. The increased presence of pests and diseases drives up the cost of crop production, negatively impacting the entire food supply chain (Singh et al., 2023).

The recurrent and successive waves of climatic disasters disseminating the African region, continue to show no imminent de-escalation. The recent flooding in the Sahelian region (Chad, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, and Northern Burkina Faso) is a testament as it recorded an amount of rainfall of 120–600 percent above the average of the reference period between 1991 and 2020 (Ludemann et al., 2024). Areas deemed not prone to floods are now flooded. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) 2024 report on the West and Central Africa flooding underscores the severe impacts inflicted on the food systems as 951,000 hectares are unsuitable for crop and livestock production, 128,000 heads of cattle swept away and communities vulnerable to food and nutritional security far greater than in previous years (Tholstrup and Vazquez, 2024). These climatic disasters are now in their own category of a pandemic. For the past 5 years, each region has been affected by either one or two climatic disasters within a rainy season and covering a large scope (OCHA, 2020; OCHA, 2021; OCHA, 2022; OCHA, 2023a; OCHA, 2023b; OCHA, 2023c; OCHA, 2024a; OCHA, 2024b; and OCHA, 2024c). This is shown in Appendix Table 2.

Disaggregating these impacts reveals that smallholder farmers, particularly women and youth, bear a disproportionate burden (Chabwera and Madhlopa, 2025). These groups often lack access to climate-resilient technologies, financial resources, and extension services, exacerbating their vulnerability. For instance, in Malawi, where over 70% of the population relies on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, the 2024 El Niño-induced drought led to the loss of 70% of the maize harvest, severely impacting food availability and livelihoods. The value chains of key staple crops such as maize, sorghum, and millet are increasingly disrupted by climate-induced shocks. These disruptions lead to increased post-harvest losses, especially in regions lacking adequate storage and transportation infrastructure. For example, in West Africa, higher humidity and warmer temperatures have caused produce to rot in storage or transit, increasing food waste and reducing market availability.

Furthermore, climate change exacerbates food insecurity by affecting both the supply and demand sides of food systems. On the supply side, reduced agricultural productivity leads to lower food availability, while on the demand side, increased food prices make it difficult for vulnerable populations to access nutritious food. This dual impact is particularly severe for low-income households that spend a significant portion of their income on food. Collectively, this results in a failed food system for the entire continent at its core, thus production as both crops and animals have been greatly affected. Regions within the African continent could fail to act as food systems buffer zones for each other as they are all gripped with climatic bottlenecks (FAO, AUC, ECA, WFP, 2023).

Due to the adverse effects of climate change, meeting both current and future demand for food is a challenge especially when the food environment is taken into consideration within the context of food systems impact pathways. The food environment is defined as a set of parameters that includes affordability, acceptability, information and marketing, food quality and safety and policy conditions (Herforth and Ahmed, 2015). These variables are significant in ensuring equitable access to quality and diversified foods.

Figure 3 is an illustration of the pathways for the impact of climate change on food systems, food security, and undernutrition. As observed, climate change relates to food access by affecting affordability. Such challenges are largely present in Africa where 27 percent of the population (Addae-Korankye, 2014) live below the poverty line exposing them to price shocks. It is therefore imperative for governments to consider a multidisciplinary approach (focusing on markets, policy, and food standards and regulations, economic growth etc.) to transform food systems amidst climate change risks and shocks (Kumar, 2021).

The economic impact of climate change is profound, particularly in the context of food affordability. As climate change progresses, the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms disrupt agricultural production and supply chains. These disruptions lead to significant price volatility in food markets, which disproportionately affect vulnerable populations (Talukder et al., 2024). The Food and Agriculture Organization documented significant fluctuations in food prices across various regions, particularly in Africa. According to FAO, these fluctuations are often driven by climate-related disruptions that impact the agriculture sector. In Africa for example, the price of Maize, which is the main staple food, skyrocketed with the aftermath of El Niňo experienced in 2024. In Zimbabwe, the 2024 El Niňo induced-drought resulted in significant widespread crop failure, which affected the livelihoods and purchasing power of refugees in camps, who mostly rely on farming (Ludemann et al., 2024). The current 2024/2025 growing season presents a daunting future for food security as the effects of climate change continue to affect the southern African region with dry spells, resulting in significant crop failure.

Similarly, in 2016, a notable phenomenon occurred in Southern Africa. A severe drought, one of the worst in decades, profoundly affected agricultural productivity in Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa. The resulting decrease in crop yields led to a sharp increase in food prices. Some staples saw increases of up to 50% or more (Toromade et al., 2024). For low-income households and the urban poor, this spike in prices worsened their ability to secure sufficient and nutritious food (Codjoe et al., 2014).

The implications of these economic changes are not limited to immediate price increases. Over time, persistent food affordability challenges lead to broader societal issues, including increased poverty rates, heightened social tensions, and public health crises (Vandamme et al., 2022). As families struggle to afford nutritious food, they may resort to cheaper, less healthy options, leading to long-term health problems such as obesity and diet-related diseases (Myers et al., 2017).

Food utilization is significantly impacted by climate change in Africa (Kotir, 2011). Climate induced events such as drought and floods contribute to reduced nutritional quality of food, safety and access. In Sub Saharan Africa, climate-induced floods make the region vulnerable to cholera outbreaks. Water is directly affected while food is indirectly affected through washing and cooking with contaminated water causing illness and malabsorption of food to those exposed (Kotir, 2011). Similarly, climate-induced drought frustrates issues of food safety and food quality due to inadequate water during such periods (Thornton et al., 2018). In Ethiopia, recurrent droughts have caused water shortages, hindering food preparation and increasing foodborne illness risks (Kumar et al., 2022). Furthermore, inadequate sanitation raises food contamination risks, impairing nutrient absorption, especially in regions with weak food safety regulations (Palupi et al., 2024).

Rising temperatures and humidity create conditions favorable for pests and diseases, reducing both crop yields and nutrient content. Studies indicate that extreme climate variability could decrease crop output in some African countries by up to 50% by 2030, affecting staple crops like maize and sorghum, crucial for food security (Ludemann et al., 2024). Furthermore, climate change impacts not only food quantity but also nutritional quality. Rising CO₂ levels can lower crop nutrient density, leading to potential deficiencies. A study by Smith and Myers (2018) found that 550 ppm CO₂ could decrease protein, iron, and zinc in major crops by 3–17%, potentially resulting in 175 million more individuals with zinc deficiency, 122 million more with protein deficiency, and increased risks of iron deficiency, especially for women and children in Asia and Africa. This emphasizes the importance of addressing climate change’s effect on micronutrient intake and global nutrition efforts. Dietary changes may help reduce some effects, but tackling this issue remains essential (Thomas et al., 2021).

Food safety is also threatened by increased aflatoxin contamination in staple crops like maize and groundnuts. Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus fungi, are highly toxic and carcinogenic, posing severe health risks such as liver cancer and immune suppression (Awuchi et al., 2020). Climate change increases the vulnerability of crops to such contamination, exacerbating food and nutrition security concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa (Warnatzsch et al., 2020).

Poor storage facilities and infrastructure further hinder food utilization. Without proper storage, harvested crops are prone to spoilage and contamination. For example, Cyclone Idai in Mozambique in the year 2019 caused widespread flooding, destroying crops and storage facilities, leading to food losses (Toromade et al., 2024). Additionally, extreme weather events disrupt transportation networks, delaying market access and increasing food spoilage, and therefore reducing nutritional quality of food (Ludemann et al., 2024).

Climate change exerts profound impacts on food systems, particularly in the Global South, leaving millions vulnerable to food insecurity. Agriculture is both a major victim of climate variability and a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, yet it also presents opportunities for mitigation and adaptation (Zaman et al., 2021). Interventions within the sector are therefore critical not only for food security but also for addressing broader environmental challenges that affect food availability. Farming households that once experienced bumper harvests now face sharply reduced yields, with previously productive land often yielding half of prior outputs, thereby exacerbating food and nutrition insecurity. This situation underscores the need to reassess and strengthen climate mitigation strategies targeting food systems. While agrifood systems are negatively impacted by climate change, they also contribute to it through emissions, highlighting a dual challenge. At COP29, discussions emphasized the potential of transforming agrifood systems into climate solutions. However, in regions such as Africa, financial constraints often necessitate prioritizing immediate hunger relief over long-term climate mitigation initiatives (UNFCCC, 2023). Timely disbursement of pledged climate finance is therefore essential to support Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and ensure that mitigation strategies are both effective and scalable.

A growing body of evidence highlights Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) as a cornerstone of adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate-resilient food systems (Mnukwa et al., 2025). Recent studies have demonstrated that CSA practices can reduce greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously enhancing food security outcomes (Zhao et al., 2023). Interventions such as agroforestry, conservation tillage, and integrated crop-livestock systems have shown promise in improving resilience to extreme weather events and maintaining soil health (Tendall et al., 2015). Similarly, a meta-analysis of CSA adoption across smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa found that practices including improved crop rotations and precision irrigation systems can reduce emissions by up to 30 percent, while increasing yields by an average of 20 percent (Mnukwa et al., 2025). These findings indicate that CSA is not only effective at mitigating climate change impacts but is also scalable, particularly in regions most vulnerable to climate variability, provided that adequate technical support and financing mechanisms are in place.

Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils represents another critical mitigation strategy (Zhu et al., 2022). Research examining sustainable soil management practices, including reduced tillage, cover cropping, and organic farming, indicates that these practices can offset up to 15 percent of annual agricultural emissions by increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks (Liu et al., 2024). When combined with agroforestry interventions, total carbon sequestration can reach up to 25 percent, illustrating the potential for synergistic benefits. However, trade-offs exist. A study in European farming systems evaluating conservation tillage found that while soil carbon storage increased significantly, regional variations in soil texture and water retention occasionally led to reduced crop yields (O’sullivan et al., 2024). These findings highlight that effectiveness and scalability depend on context-specific assessments, emphasizing the importance of tailoring soil management strategies to local agroecological conditions.

Technological innovations have also emerged as pivotal tools in enhancing both mitigation and adaptation in agrifood systems. Digital agriculture technologies such as remote sensing, artificial intelligence, and blockchain enable precision agriculture practices that optimize resource use and reduce emissions (Balasundram et al., 2023). For instance, precision irrigation and fertilizer management can cut nitrogen emissions by up to 40 percent while improving crop yields by 15 percent (Singh et al., 2024). Similarly, biotechnology innovations, including drought-tolerant and pest-resistant genetically modified (GM) crops, have shown potential for large-scale adoption in arid regions, reducing water use by 30 percent and lowering pesticide-related emissions (Patel et al., 2022). The effectiveness and scalability of these technologies, however, depend on complementary policies that ensure equitable access, infrastructure development, and farmer training, particularly in low-income countries.

A growing body of research emphasizes the need for collaborative governance that involves multiple stakeholders such as governments, private sectors, civil society, and international organizations to effectively mitigate climate change impacts on food systems. Hernandez Garcia et al. (2024) found that multi-stakeholder initiatives, such as the Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture, have been instrumental in fostering cross-border collaboration and knowledge-sharing, particularly in the context of scaling up sustainable practices in developing countries. These initiatives have enabled farmers to access climate-smart tools and resources, as well as financial mechanisms to transition to more sustainable farming models (Hernandez Garcia et al., 2024).

Similarly, Smith (2023) evaluated the role of public-private partnerships in promoting sustainable food systems in Southeast Asia. They observed that such partnerships facilitated development of climate-resilient supply chains, particularly in the palm oil and rice sectors, by providing farmers with access to better farming practices and climate risk insurance. The study further advocated for a more integrated approach to policy-making that incorporates both local and global actors to create synergies between mitigation, adaptation, and development goals.

The systematic review process and article sparked thoughts in the authors’ minds that can inform policy decisions for African countries in regard to climate change and food systems. The policy implications of climate change on food systems in Africa present the urgent need for comprehensive and adaptive strategies. Furthermore, strengthening climate-smart agriculture policies will be crucial to promoting drought-resistant crops, sustainable water management, and soil conservation techniques (Thierfelder et al., 2021). Additionally, enhancing climate financing for agriculture will enable African governments to access international funds for investing in mitigation and adaptation strategies, such as improved irrigation infrastructure and sustainable farming practices (Mungai et al., 2021).

To safeguard food security, governments should implement targeted social protection programs, including food aid, nutrition initiatives, and crop insurance schemes to support vulnerable populations (Devereux, 2016). Investing in agricultural research and innovation is also vital, with a focus on agro-ecological practices, biotechnology, and digital farming tools to enhance resilience. The findings in this review also guide the importance of developing robust early warning systems and disaster response mechanisms which help mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events on food production and distribution. Finally, aligning national agricultural policies with global climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement and COP resolutions, will enable countries to access climate finance and technical support while strengthening their climate adaptation efforts (UNFCCC, 2023).

Understanding the impacts of climate change on food systems in Africa is important as it helps countries come up with interventions that help to reduce the adverse effects of climate change whilst improving the sustainability of food systems and diets. The current food systems in Africa leave a lot to be desired coupled with recurring natural disasters and shocks. Through understanding these impacts, policymakers will be better placed to make informed decisions that respond to the current trend of climate change. Research that focuses on specific countries and regions would be ideal for providing relevant information that is tailored to localities so that localized climate change interventions can be made.