Water-saving irrigation technology (WSIT) is widely recognized as a crucial approach to addressing global water scarcity and promoting sustainable agricultural development (Zou et al., 2012). It encompasses techniques such as drip irrigation, micro-sprinkler irrigation, subsurface irrigation, and intelligent irrigation systems, etc., which enhance the efficiency of water, fertilizer, and pesticide use, reduce resource inputs, and increase crop yields (Singh et al., 2024). However, WSIT implementation may also induce hydrological changes-including alterations in surface runoff, soil moisture dynamics, groundwater recharge, and salt transport-that can potentially affect regional ecological security (Xu et al., 2010; Du et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2024; Gabiri et al., 2018).

In the existing studies on the adoption of WSIT in China, scholars have delved deeply into the multiple factors affecting farmers' adoption decisions. There has been a notable shift from the identification of single driving factors to the analysis of interaction and regulatory mechanisms among these factors. For instance, the studies by Liu H. et al. (2025), Liu Y. et al. (2025) and Dai et al. (2015) have shown that factors like farmers' planting scale, experience, and ecological awareness have a positive impact on their willingness to pay and the probability of adoption. Conversely, technical complexity and investment costs act as deterrents. Moreover, research has emphasized the crucial role of farmers' psychological cognition. Wang et al. (2024) found that perceived ease of use significantly promotes adoption behavior, while Xiuling et al. (2023) pointed out that risk aversion significantly inhibits adoption, though technical training can effectively mitigate this negative impact. Additionally, the influence of external environment and social networks has been highly regarded. Zhang and Song (2024) empirical study demonstrated that government support significantly increases farmers' adoption probability, especially for those with weaker environmental-friendly intentions. Social interaction has also been proven to be an important channel for technology diffusion. The studies by Wang and Xu (2024) and Mu et al. (2024) both emphasized that the neighborhood effect promotes technology adoption by reducing information costs and providing demonstrations, and this effect varies among different characteristics of farmers.

However, in international research, WSIT are not only widely discussed as a new technology by scholars (Belaidi et al., 2022; Salhi et al., 2012; Foster and Rosenzweig, 2010; Zhang and Song, 2024). Beyond its technical function, WSIT serves as a risk mitigation tool that can reduce the frequency and severity of drought losses (Suchato et al., 2022). As drought risks increase, the role of WSIT in agricultural risk management has become more prominent (Hanger-Kopp and Palka, 2020, 2022; Finger et al., 2011; Tang et al., 2016; Ricart et al., 2024). Although WSIT has been widely promoted, farmers ultimately decide the timing and amount of irrigation. While this technology increases agricultural production costs, it does not necessarily lead to a significant rise in food prices. Therefore, adoption depends not only on technical attributes but also on risk reduction efficacy—that is, whether WSIT can effectively help farmers withstand agricultural shocks and minimize losses (Vågsholm et al., 2020; Garcia et al., 2020).

Farmers' risk perception and attitude are the key factors affecting their adoption of risk reduction tools. Some scholars have examined the individual effects of risk perception or risk attitude on farmers' risk management behaviors (Menapace et al., 2016; Sitkin and Weingart, 1995; Hellerstein et al., 2013). While some studies indicate that risk attitude has greater predictive power than risk perception (van Winsen et al., 2016). Farmers' perception of agricultural risks will significantly influence their adoption of WSIT. Studies have shown that farmers with more serious perception of drought risk are more willing to adopt WSIT (Hatch et al., 2022; Asare-Nuamah et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2018; Mu et al., 2024). Koundouri et al. (2005) pointed out that risk attitude affected the possibility of farmers adopting irrigation technology, which provided evidence for farmers to invest in irrigation technology to prevent related agricultural risks. Risk-averse farmers will be more active in adopting WSIT to conserve water and reduce production (yield) risk (Torkamani and Shajari, 2008).

In summary, existing research on water-saving irrigation technology (WSIT) can be broadly categorized into two streams. The first treats WSIT as a generic innovation, focusing on how farmers' individual characteristics, household conditions, and external environmental factors influence adoption decisions. The second emphasizes its role in mitigating drought risk, examining the individual effects of either risk perception or risk attitude on adoption behavior. However, current literature has yet to systematically integrate the dual attributes of WSIT—as both an innovative technology and a risk-coping tool—within a unified analytical framework. This limitation hinders a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying farmers' technology adoption decisions.

To address this research gap, this study employs survey data collected from farmers in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Liaoning Province, and Heilongjiang Province of China. From an integrated risk management perspective, and accounting for both the technological attributes and drought-resistant function of WSIT, this paper examines the combined effects of risk perception and risk attitude on farmers' adoption decisions. Risk perception is categorized into technological risk perception and drought risk perception. Furthermore, the moderating role of risk attitude is incorporated to investigate its interactive effect within the relationship between risk perception and WSIT adoption. The study thus offers a more systematic empirical and theoretical foundation for understanding farmers' technology adoption behavior under conditions of multiple risk sources.

This study makes three significant contributions to the existing literature. Firstly, in contrast to previous single-dimensional perspectives, we construct a novel theoretical framework, “The Farmer's Decision Model for Water-Saving Irrigation Technology Adoption Considering Risk Trade-offs”. This framework posits that farmers' decision-making process in adopting WSIT, which have both “risk” and “instrument” attributes, is essentially a systematic risk-balancing process based on dual risk perception. It starts when farmers simultaneously assess the “instrumental risk” (the drought risk that the WSIT aims to address) and the “endogenous risk” (the new risks that may arise from adopting the technology itself). Based on this, farmers will integrate and calculate these two types of risks psychologically, forming the “perceived net risk benefit” (the expected value of avoiding drought losses minus the expected cost of the technical risk). When the perceived net risk benefit exceeds the individualized psychological threshold influenced by resources, society, and policies, adoption behavior occurs.

Secondly, different from previous single-dimensional studies, this paper integrates farmers' risk perception and risk attitude within a unified analytical framework to systematically examine their joint influence on the adoption of WSIT. By scientifically measuring risk perception through a risk matrix and designing a context-adapted lottery experiment based on the realities of Chinese agriculture, this study uses the multiple price list (MPL) method to accurately elicit farmers' risk attitudes. This approach provides comprehensive and scientifically rigorous empirical evidence for understanding WSIT adoption decisions.

Thirdly, by constructing a moderating effect model, this paper empirically tests for the first time the role of risk attitude as a moderator in the relationship between risk perception and WSIT adoption. It offers an in-depth analysis of how risk preferences amplify or attenuate the impact of risk perception on farmers' decision-making. This mechanistic investigation not only enhances theoretical understanding but also provides a critical foundation for the design of targeted policy interventions.

Drawing on the theoretical framework of Prospect Theory, this study emphasizes that individual decision-making is influenced more strongly by subjective risk perceptions than by objective probabilities. Risk perception refers to farmers' cognition of the potential negative impact of agricultural risks on agricultural production and agricultural income (Ullah et al., 2017), including the possibility of agricultural risks and the size of negative impacts, which is widely used in farmers' risk decision-making framework (van Winsen et al., 2016; Fahad et al., 2018). Compared with actual risk occurrence, farmers' agricultural production decisions are more strongly influenced by their risk perception (Wauters et al., 2014). This leads to variations in production decisions based on differing risk perceptions (Alam and Guttormsen, 2019). WSIT is not only an agricultural innovation but also a critical tool for mitigating climate-related risks. Consequently, farmers' adoption decisions are shaped by two principal dimensions of perceived risk: “technology risk perception,” stemming from novelty and uncertainty surrounding the technology itself, and encompassing apprehensions about potential yield reduction or income loss upon adopting WSIT; and “drought risk perception,” originating from external environmental threats and farmers' subjective evaluations of the escalating frequency and potential detriment associated with extreme drought events. This study incorporates both types of risk perception into a theoretical analytical framework, aiming to examine the trade-off mechanism between technological and drought risks in farmers' decision-making. The following hypotheses are proposed:

Risk attitude refers to farmers' willingness to take risks (Wauters et al., 2014). Under the framework of expected utility theory, risk attitude is measured by the curvature of the utility function. u″(w) is an indicator for measuring the curvature of the utility function (Olarinde et al., 2007), where u represents utility and w represents the initial wealth of farmers. However, it will change with the positive monotonic transformation of the utility function. To eliminate the influence of this transformation, an indicator u″(w)/u′(w) can be used. The relative risk aversion function is R(w) = −u″(w)/u′(w), where R(w) represents the degree of risk aversion. When R(w) > 0 it represents risk aversion; when R(w) < 0 it represents risk preference; when R(w) = 0, it represents risk neutrality. Although decision-making behaviors in different fields are related to risk perception, risk attitude is relatively stable. When farmers adopt new technologies, they will definitely consider maximizing profits and minimizing risks. Therefore, risk attitude is a key factor influencing farmers' adoption of new production technologies (Lybbert and Sumner, 2012). According to risk aversion theory, farmers with higher risk aversion may place greater emphasis on the technological risks associated with Water-Saving Irrigation Technology (WSIT), which can reduce their willingness to adopt it. However, if these farmers also perceive drought risks as more severe, the same risk-averse disposition may enhance their appraisal of WSIT's drought-mitigation functionality, thereby positively influencing adoption behavior. As agricultural technologies mature, overall technological risks tend to diminish, while climate uncertainty intensifies and drought risks become increasingly salient. Consequently, even when WSIT entails certain technological risks, highly risk-averse farmers—motivated by the desire to avoid potential drought-related losses—may still exhibit a greater propensity to adopt this technology. Based on this reasoning, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Farmers' differential risk perceptions are modulated by their underlying risk attitudes. When farmers exhibit a higher perception of technical risk, their concomitant risk aversion compels an overestimation of its severity. This amplified perception intensifies the negative influence of technical risk perception on WSIT adoption, thereby enacting a negative moderating role in the relationship between technical risk perception and WSIT adoption. Conversely, should farmers possess a heightened perception of drought risk, their inherent risk aversion prompts an overestimation of drought risk as well. This amplified perception of drought risk then potentiates its positive association with WSIT adoption, signifying that risk aversion positively moderates the relationship between drought risk perception and WSIT adoption. Based on these premises, this paper proposes the following hypothesis:

The per capita water resources in China are only one-fourth of the world average (Wang et al., 2020). With the remarkable overall economic development in China and the high water-consumption trend in the manufacturing industry, the contradiction between water supply and demand will be further intensified. In June 2024, the Ministry of Water Resources released the “China Water Resources Bulletin 2023”. The bulletin indicates that in 2023, the total national water consumption was 590.65 billion cubic meters. Among them, agricultural water consumption was 367.24 billion m3, accounting for 62.2% of the total water consumption. However, the effective utilization coefficient of farmland irrigation water in China is only 0.6, still significantly lower than the average level of 0.7–0.8 in developed countries (Shi et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021), which further intensifies the contradiction between water supply and demand in agricultural production. Therefore, adequate measures are urgently needed to improve the utilization rate of agricultural water resources in China. WSIT is not only one of the main tools for conserving agricultural water, but it can also withstand the increasingly extreme drought conditions. Therefore, promoting WSIT is an inevitable choice to address the contradiction between water supply and demand, thereby promoting the sustainable development of agriculture.

The selection of these three provinces (autonomous regions) as the survey area is mainly based on the following reasons: First, these three provinces (autonomous regions) are the central corn-growing provinces (autonomous regions) in China. In 2018, the total corn output of these three provinces (autonomous regions) accounted for 32.45% of the national total output, and during the period from 2008 to 2018, the total corn output of these three provinces (autonomous regions) accounted for more than 25% of the national total output, playing an essential role in China's corn food security. Second, the average total water resources volume of these three provinces (autonomous regions) is only approximately 154.1 billion cubic meters, accounting for 5.38% of the national average total water resources volume. Between 2012 and 2014, the average area affected by drought in these three provinces (autonomous regions) reached 446.7 thousand hectares, accounting for 42.19% of the national average area affected by drought. Third, the farmers in the survey area mainly rely on agriculture for their livelihood. These three provinces (autonomous regions) had an average total area of crop sowing of approximately 27,611 thousand hectares from 2014 to 2018, accounting for 16.61% of the national average total area of crop sowing. 51.32% of the farmers' agricultural income accounted for more than 65% of their total household income. Facing increasingly frequent extreme droughts, farmers urgently need to take proactive measures to cope with these events.

In conclusion, agricultural production in Heilongjiang Province, Liaoning Province, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region holds a crucial position in China's overall agricultural production. However, their agricultural development is severely threatened by water shortage and frequent droughts. They urgently need to promote WSIT and improve the adoption efficiency of farmers for WSIT. Choosing these three provinces can provide theoretical and practical references for promoting WSIT in other regions.

This study adopts the method of random sampling. The research team first selected Harbin City, Shenyang City, and Chifeng City in Heilongjiang Province, Liaoning Province, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region as the survey areas, and then selected Shuangcheng District in Harbin City, Faku County in Shenyang City, and Aohan Qi in Chifeng City as the sample counties (cities). Subsequently, two urban districts, Lianxing Town, Dongguan Town and Qingling Township in Shuangcheng District, Woniushi Township in Faku County, and Changsheng Town and Mutouyingzi Township in Aohan Banner were selected as sample towns. Then, 1 to 5 administrative villages were randomly selected in each sample town, and 30 to 50 households were sampled from each administrative village for investigation. The respondents were household heads or members with knowledge of household production and operation who understood and were familiar with the survey content. The survey content mainly includes respondents' individual and household characteristics, basic agricultural production conditions, farmers' adoption of WSIT, agricultural risks, and farmers' adoption of risk management tools.

The survey was conducted through one-on-one household interviews. The investigators, all master's and doctoral candidates, received professional training before the survey and understood the purpose of setting each question in detail. In addition, to ensure the authenticity of the information, improve the farmers' cooperation, and reduce their vigilance, the investigators first identified themselves to the farmers before the survey, indicating that the questionnaire was only used for scientific research and paid each respondent a subsidy of 20 yuan for working. The survey collected data from 474 farmers, with 469 valid questionnaires retained after eliminating invalid responses, yielding an effective response rate of 98.95%.

The above empirical estimation results consistently indicate that risk perception and risk attitude play a significant role in farmers' adoption of WSIT. Here, we discuss the reasons for the above empirical results.

First, the adverse effect of technological risk perception aligns with perceived risk theory and is consistent with existing studies on the adoption of agricultural technology (Yang et al., 2025; Yu et al., 2024). Systemic risks associated with the promotion of new technologies can hinder their widespread adoption (Tzachor et al., 2022; Dai et al., 2015). Concerns regarding technical complexity, operational challenges, or equipment reliability may reduce farmers' willingness to adopt (Adla et al., 2024). Even when long-term benefits are evident, short-term perceptions of high maintenance costs or poor adaptability can inhibit adoption. This further reflects the role of information asymmetry: insufficient knowledge about actual benefits may amplify risk expectations and suppress adoption (Hong et al., 2024).

Second, the positive impact of drought risk perception can be understood through risk coping theory. Climate change represents a major agricultural threat, particularly in arid regions (Javed and Khan, 2019). When farmers perceive increased production uncertainty due to climate variability, their motivation to adopt adaptive technologies to stabilize income becomes stronger (Hansen et al., 2019). This result corroborates earlier findings that higher risk perception increases the likelihood of adopting new technologies to mitigate potential losses (Liu H. et al., 2025; Liu Y. et al., 2025; Li and Huang, 2023). As extreme weather events intensify, farmers are increasingly likely to employ risk management tools to reduce agricultural vulnerabilities and safeguard yields.

Third, the positive effect of risk aversion attitude reflects the logic of expected utility theory, wherein risk-averse individuals prefer specific outcomes over uncertain losses. This result suggests that farmers tend to adopt risk management tools—such as smart irrigation—to mitigate the severe consequences of agricultural risks (Wibowo et al., 2019; Hossain, 2025). Most farmers exhibit risk-averse tendencies (Farhan et al., 2022; Ahmad et al., 2019), and with increasing climate extremes, they become more sensitive to drought risks and more willing to take preventive measures—such as adopting water-saving technologies—to secure agricultural income. This behavioral pattern mirrors mechanisms observed in agricultural insurance adoption (Yang et al., 2025), where risk-averse individuals seek to reduce potential losses through preventive investments or risk-mitigating technologies.

Fourth, risk aversion attenuates the adverse effect of technological risk perception on adoption, encouraging farmers to implement WSIT despite technical uncertainties. As shown in Table 4, 95.52% of farmers exhibit a high perception of drought risk, which strengthens their motivation to act. According to protection motivation theory, when individuals perceive a threat as severe and believe they can respond effectively, they are more likely to adopt protective measures—even if those measures entail secondary risks. A risk compensation mechanism may also operate: when farmers perceive that adopting WSIT can effectively reduce drought risk (benefit), they become willing to bear certain technical risks (cost), resulting in a cognitive trade-off between multiple risk sources (Villacis et al., 2021). This result is consistent with the research of (Bommier and Le Grand 2019), which shows that risk-averse farmers are more willing to adopt WSIT when the perception of drought risk is more pronounced, actively reducing the impact of drought risks.

This paper uses farmer survey data to analyze the adoption of WSIT. Specifically, this paper first analyzes farmers' evaluation of WSIT and its impact on their adoption behavior. Furthermore, the binary Logit model and moderating effect model were used to empirically analyze the impacts of risk perception and risk attitude on the adoption of WSIT by farmers, as key factors affecting agricultural risk management, and the differences in the impacts of risk perception and risk attitude among farmers with different characteristics. Finally, the moderating effect of risk attitude on the impact of risk perception on farmers' adoption of WSIT and the differences in the moderating effect of risk attitude among farmers with different characteristics are investigated. The main conclusions are as follows:

On the practical front, this paper offers valuable perspectives for advancing WSIT, bolstering farmers' capabilities to mitigate drought risks, and fostering sustainable agricultural development.

To begin with, for farmers characterized by low-risk perception and a risk-averse mindset, it is imperative to deepen their comprehension of risk information, thus stimulating their enthusiasm for adopting WSIT. Concretely, relevant authorities can leverage historical data, such as the decline in grain production attributed to natural risks in prior years, to forecast future natural risks and expeditiously disseminate the predicted risk intelligence to farmers. It is recommended that local television stations initiate specialized agricultural risk management programs to broadcast the current year's abnormal temperature and precipitation patterns, along with their potential adverse impacts on agricultural production.

Secondly, for the same group of farmers with low-risk perception and risk aversion, enhancing the accuracy of their risk perception is crucial to augment their eagerness to adopt WSIT. Specifically, local agricultural departments can utilize mobile messaging services or WeChat public accounts to disseminate real-time weather updates and price fluctuations of agricultural products. Village committees can assign dedicated personnel to promptly post or forward natural and market risk information in WeChat groups and encourage farmers to study and share this information. Through such comprehensive and multi-tiered dissemination of agricultural risk information, the accuracy of farmers' risk perception can be effectively improved.

This paper focuses on exploring the impact of risk perception and risk attitude on farmers' adoption of WSIT from the perspective of risk reduction, and further examines the moderating effect of risk attitude, thereby enriching existing research. One limitation of this study is that we only focused on corn growers in three provinces in China. In future research, it is necessary to conduct further studies and include other crops and a larger sample size.