The relationship between land rights and economic development has been widely studied, with numerous scholars highlighting its positive and significant impact on economic outcomes (Abdulai et al., 2011; Ho, 2021). Secure land tenure is generally associated with increased agricultural investment, improved access to credit, and enhanced economic stability for farming households (Platteau, 1996). By reducing uncertainty regarding land ownership, tenure security encourages long-term investments in land improvement, mechanization, and sustainable farming practices, thereby fostering rural economic growth (Akowedaho et al., 2022; Gedefaw et al., 2020).

Private land ownership has been particularly emphasized in the literature as a key driver of economic development. According to the Byamugisha (2013), land ownership enhances collateral value, allowing farmers to access financial resources necessary for agricultural expansion and entrepreneurship. Studies by Bambio and Agha (2018) further highlight the role of secure land tenure in facilitating land transactions and boosting informal asset values. However, it is crucial to contextualize these findings, particularly in rural settings where customary and communal land tenure systems remain prevalent.

Despite the widely acknowledged benefits of land tenure security, the link between private property rights and investment remains contested. Ho (2021), drawing on evidence from Vietnam, argues that the magnitude of this impact is sensitive to both observed and unobserved confounding factors, making the overall effect modest. Similarly, Platteau (1996) contends that the benefits attributed to private or legal land rights are often overestimated, emphasizing the high costs and limited effectiveness of formal titling programs in rural settings. Instead, he advocates for alternative solutions that integrate existing informal tenure arrangements and community-based mechanisms. In this regard, the relationship between perceived tenure security and investment is complex and influenced by various factors, including legal frameworks, social dynamics, and economic conditions (Liu et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2025). Households with a strong perception of tenure security are more likely to invest in land management (Liu et al., 2023). Conversely, low perceived security can discourage such long-term investments, even when legal documentation is present (Van Gelder, 2009).

A critical factor influencing the economic impact of land tenure security is the strength of land rights. Bambio and Agha (2018) suggest that the causality between land tenure and investment is contingent on the robustness of land rights. Their findings indicate that stronger land rights correlate with increased agricultural investment, while weaker rights—such as customary land tenure—may provide limited economic benefits. These insights underscore the importance of considering the diversity of tenure systems when evaluating land policies.

Building on this perspective, the present study aims to assess the differential impacts of various land tenure arrangements on rural economic development.

Unlike conventional approaches that focus primarily on agricultural investment, this research adopts a multidimensional view of economic development at the farm household level, considering not only investment but also income diversification, market participation, and financial resilience. This broader lens contributes to a more systemic understanding of how land rights affect economic outcomes, thereby addressing an important gap in the literature, where economic effects are often treated in isolation from social and ecological dynamics (Guinin Asso et al., 2022; Naude, 2021). By contextualizing economic development within the realities of rural livelihoods, this study seeks to provide a more nuanced understanding of land tenure security and its economic implications.

The relationship between land tenure security and environmental sustainability has garnered increasing attention in recent years. While empirical evidence remains fragmented, a growing body of research underscores the role of secure land rights—particularly collective and community land rights—in the sustainable management of natural resources, including rural land (Azadi et al., 2021). Sustainable land use and management are now widely recognized as key drivers for poverty reduction and long-term environmental sustainability (Asaaga et al., 2020). Secure land tenure provides landowners and communities with the incentives to engage in conservation efforts, adopt agroecological practices, and invest in soil and water conservation techniques (Azadi et al., 2021; Aznar-Sanchez et al., 2019).

Collective and community land tenure systems, in particular, have been associated with improved environmental stewardship. Research suggests that when communities have legally recognized rights over land and natural resources, they are more likely to implement sustainable management practices that ensure the long-term viability of these resources (Guinin Asso et al., 2022). This aligns with Ostrom’s (1990) theory of collective action, which highlights the effectiveness of locally governed land systems in preventing resource depletion and promoting sustainable land use.

However, while collective land rights demonstrate clear environmental benefits, the impact of individual land rights on sustainable land management remains ambiguous. Some scholars argue that formalized individual land tenure can promote better land use practices by increasing the accountability of landholders and encouraging long-term investments in conservation (De Zeeuw, 1997). On the other hand, studies also suggest that insecure or fragmented land tenure can lead to environmentally detrimental behaviors, such as deforestation, overgrazing, and excessive chemical input use (Adechian et al., 2020). Farmers experiencing tenure insecurity may prioritize short-term gains over long-term sustainability, leading to land degradation and resource depletion.

The complexity of these interactions highlights the need for context-specific and integrated approaches to land tenure security. However, most studies treat environmental sustainability as a secondary outcome of land tenure reforms, without systematically examining how different tenure types shape long-term land stewardship. This study explicitly models these effects in conjunction with economic and social dimensions, thus contributing to a more comprehensive analytical framework for understanding the sustainability implications of land governance reforms.

The social implications of land rights have been widely debated in the literature, particularly regarding their role in fostering inclusive development. Secure land tenure is a key driver of social stability, reducing conflicts, and promoting equitable access to resources. Valkonen (2021) highlights that land rights enhance participation in decision-making processes, empowering marginalized groups such as women, youth, and indigenous communities. By providing legal recognition of ownership, land tenure security strengthens individuals’ bargaining power, enabling them to claim their rights and actively engage in economic and social activities.

Empirical evidence suggests that land tenure security contributes to social security by fostering stability, social cohesion, and integration of vulnerable groups. Guinin Asso et al. (2022) demonstrate that secure land rights improve accessibility, land use efficiency, and the social inclusion of women, young people, herders, and migrants.

However, while these studies confirm the positive role of land tenure in social development, they often fail to distinguish between different types of land rights and their interactions with economic and environmental conditions. Most importantly, the lack of integrative frameworks limits our ability to capture the full potential of land tenure security to drive pro-poor and inclusive rural development. This study addresses that gap by exploring the synergistic effects of land rights on social inclusion, ecological protection, and economic empowerment.

A pro-poor approach to land registration is essential for ensuring rapid and cost-effective land security for marginalized populations. Zevenbergen et al. (2013) argue that accessible land registration systems can facilitate land security for the poor, allowing them to establish legal ownership and participate in property markets. Understanding whether all forms of land tenure are equally effective in fostering social inclusion and reducing inequalities is critical for designing inclusive land policies.

Additionally, several studies emphasize the role of secure land rights in preventing and managing land conflicts, reducing gender disparities, and improving food security. Deininger et al. (2021); Handoko (2020); Kehinde et al. (2021) highlight that clearly defined land rights mitigate disputes, promote gender equity by granting women formal ownership, and enhance household food security by incentivizing sustainable agricultural investments.

The literature reviewed above demonstrates that land tenure security has significant economic, social, and environmental implications. However, these impacts are often analyzed in isolation, making it difficult to comprehensively assess the role of land rights in sustainable development. While some studies focus on land tenure’s influence on economic development—primarily through investment—others examine its environmental sustainability contributions, particularly through community-based land management. Additionally, social development aspects, such as conflict resolution, gender equity, and empowerment, have received considerable attention.

Despite these contributions, the fragmented nature of existing research limits a holistic understanding of land rights’ overall impact. Most studies adopt sectoral approaches that separately assess economic, environmental, or social effects, often using unrelated conceptual or methodological frameworks. This compartmentalized perspective overlooks the interdependencies and feedback loops that define sustainable development in practice. This study addresses this critical gap by using structural equation modeling to assess simultaneously the pathways linking land tenure to each pillar of sustainable development. By doing so, it advances the empirical literature and contributes to a theory-informed, system-based framework for analyzing land governance reforms in the Global South.

Jabareen (2008) highlights the absence of a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding sustainable development as a multifaceted concept. Effective land tenure policies should contribute to sustainable development by addressing fundamental human needs, integrating economic progress with environmental protection, fostering social equity, and ensuring cultural and self-determination rights (Tomislav, 2018).

This study aims to bridge the gap by adopting a systemic approach that examines land tenure’s interconnected effects on economic, social, and environmental dimensions. By modeling the impact of land rights on sustainable development as a whole, the research seeks to provide nuanced insights that inform more effective and inclusive land policies.

While the economic, social, and environmental effects of land tenure security have been documented separately, little effort has been made to integrate them into a unified analytical framework. This study fills that gap by providing empirical evidence on the multidimensional effects of land tenure security using a mixed-methods design and structural modeling. It offers a novel contribution to sustainable development research by clarifying how land governance reforms can simultaneously promote inclusive growth, environmental protection, and social equity.

This research analyzes the effects of land rights on rural households in the department of Borgou in Benin, located in West Africa (Figure 1). Borgou has been the focus of several land tenure reforms since 2007, including the Rural Land Plans (PFR) and the Systematic Cluster Approach (ASG), implemented through various land programs (Guinin Asso et al., 2022). More recently, the department has also benefited from the national Cadaster initiative.

Since 2007, several types of land certificates have been promoted in Borgou, including the Certificate of Rural Land (CFR), the Customary Tenure Certificate (ADC), standardized use contracts (CT), local conventions for collective land rights, and pastureland protection agreements. Borgou also hosts the largest reserve of agricultural land in Benin, making it an ideal setting to assess the impact of land rights on sustainable development among farming households. Data for this study were collected in the district of N’Dali, which, according to local government records, has issued the highest number of land tenure documents in the department.

It is important to note that both the CFR and ADC serve as presumptions of private ownership based on customary rights, while the standardized use contract (CT) represents a rental or usage agreement, all governed by Benin’s land tenure law. In contrast, the Land Title (TF) offers the highest level of land security, conferring incontestable private ownership.

The data collection process consists of two phases. The first phase focuses on constructing locally accepted indicators for measuring sustainable development based on rural households’ perspectives. The second phase assesses the impact of land rights on each dimension of sustainable development.

Phase 1: Co-construction of sustainable development Indicators that make sense for rural household.

The measurement of sustainable development dimensions varies significantly across communities and must reflect local realities. According to Joumard (2019), sustainable development should be socially constructed based on community aspirations. Therefore, this study relies on stakeholder perceptions to define relevant measurement indicators for each sustainable development dimension influenced by land rights.

Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted to collaboratively identify measurable indicators for each dimension of sustainable development: (i) economic development, (ii) environmental sustainability, and (iii) social development. Participants were asked to identify key aspects of sustainable development that they believe are influenced by land rights.

The FGDs were conducted in villages benefiting from land tenure security interventions in the municipality of N’Dali (Borgou). Three categories of stakeholders were involved:

A separate FGD was held for each stakeholder category to ensure that all groups, particularly women and youth, could freely express their point of views.

Data from this phase were synthesized to identify different changes in sustainable development based on the perceptions of stakeholders. The results were validated through a village assembly to ensure they accurately reflected community perceptions. The validated indicators were then used in the second phase as measurement items for sustainable development dimensions.

Phase 2: Measuring the impact of land rights on sustainable development.

The study investigates farming households in Borgou and classifies them into four categories based on their land tenure status:

We determined the sample size using the formula:

where:

N = total number of farming households (11,293, RNA, 2022).

e = margin of error.

z = critical value.

Using this formula, the required sample size was calculated as 372 farming households. Household heads were randomly selected to participate in the study.

Table 1 presents the specifications of the variables included in the analysis model. We designed a structured questionnaire for data collection.

To ensure data reliability and validity, a pilot test was conducted with a small subset of households before full-scale data collection. Adjustments were made to improve clarity and relevance. This step helps us to validate constructed items before data collection. In Appendix 2, we present the measurement indicators of development pillars.

Data analysis followed a systematic approach using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques.

We perform descriptive statistics by calculating frequencies, percentages, and measures of central tendency (mean, median, standard deviation) to summarize household characteristics and tenure status. We also conducted reliability analysis by calculating Cronbach’s alpha. This allows to assess the internal consistency of measurement constructs related to economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.

We perform Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the relationships between land tenure security and sustainable development indicators. The Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) method was employed due to the ordinal nature of the data (DiStefano and Morgan, 2014). Model fit was evaluated using key indices, including the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

We finally used thematic analysis using qualitative data from interviews and FGDs to identify recurring patterns and contextual nuances regarding land tenure security.

The combination of these analytical techniques provided a robust framework for understanding the multifaceted impact of land rights on sustainable rural development. The findings from the analysis informed key policy recommendations aimed at enhancing land governance and tenure security in Benin.

The descriptive statistics of the rural households that participated in the study are shown in Table 2, emphasizing important land-related, economic, and demographic traits. Eighty-six percent of the sample is male, and 62 % of the adults in the sample are between the ages of 36 and 55. Of these, 62 % do not have a formal education. A smaller percentage (11 percent) manage <2 hectares, while the majority (58 percent) own between 2 and 20 hectares. While 39 percent of households are able to save to some degree, 40 percent of households struggle to meet their expenses, either through borrowing or using savings. Significant tenure insecurity is highlighted by the distribution of land rights, which shows that 34% rely on customary land rights, 45% lack formal land certificates, and 3% have formal land titles. These results highlight important issues that affect land tenure security and sustainable rural development, such as gender inequality, low levels of education, economic vulnerability, and limited formal land ownership.

The measurement model, which looks at the connection between latent variables and their measures, is an essential part of the SEM. We used Cronbach’s α to measure the convergent validity. Table 3 showed that a value of α near one indicated good convergent validity. Table 3 also displays the items’ standard deviation and average value.

We used the Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) method as the method effectively handles ordinal or non-normal data (DiStefano and Morgan, 2014). As presented in Tables 4, a good fit was demonstrated across a number of indices, such as the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), with value approaches of 1 for the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) (Savalei, 2021). In addition, the SRMR and RMSEA values are within the excellent range of <0.05 (Iacobucci, 2010).

The R-squared values indicate the variance in the endogenous (dependent) variables accounted for by the exogenous (independent) variables in the model. Behavior predictions with R² = 0.37 for EcD, R² = 0.23 for SoD, and R² = 0.27 for EnD are acceptable; however, R² = 0.18 for Land right, respectively, is slightly low (Table 5).

We illustrate in this section the results of the structural equation model that shows how the rural household profile affects land security and the impact of land security on each aspect of sustainable development. Figure 2 synthetizes the significant structural relationships while the Table 6 contains the overall parameter estimates.

The Figure 2 provides insight into the key factors influencing land tenure security (Land_Right). Among demographic factors, gender/sex plays a significant role, with males having a positive and strong association (β = 0.27, p < 0.001), indicating that men are more likely to secure land rights compared to women. This result highlights gender disparities in access to land ownership, often driven by cultural and institutional biases that disadvantage women in rural areas.

The level of education significantly influences land tenure security. Households with post-secondary education (Education3) exhibit the strongest positive effect (β = 0.22, p < 0.001), followed by basic formal education (Education1) (β = 0.14, p = 0.027). In contrast, secondary education (Education2) does not have a significant effect (p = 0.108). These results underscore the importance of education in facilitating knowledge about formal land registration processes and navigating land governance systems. Higher education levels empower individuals to claim and secure land rights more effectively. It facilitates the collaboration with institutions involved in land registration process.

Land size has a negative association with land tenure security, particularly for households with moderate to large landholdings. For instance, households with 2.1–20 ha (Land_size1) (β = −0.29, p = 0.026) and those with 21–100 ha (Land_size2) (β = −0.40, p = 0.002) report significantly lower land tenure security compared to those with small landholdings (≤ 2 ha). This unexpected finding could reflect disputes or challenges associated with larger landholdings, such as conflicts over ownership, boundary disputes, or the lack of formal documentation for inherited or acquired land. In addition, it has revealed that the negative effect of land size on land tenure security is linked to the high cost and complexity of formal land registration processes.

Household income is positively associated with land tenure security, particularly for those with higher financial stability. Households where income “allows strengthening savings” (Revenue4, β = 0.22, p = 0.012) or “simply meets expenses” (Revenue2, β = 0.18, p = 0.028) are more likely to secure land rights. This result indicates that financial stability facilitates formal land registration processes, which often involve costs such as legal fees, surveys, or administrative procedures.

Our findings reveal that gender, education, and land size significantly influence land tenure security among rural households. Specifically, male-headed households and those with higher education levels are more likely to hold formal land rights. These results align with earlier evidence from Doss et al. (2015) and Slavchevska et al. (2021), who emphasized persistent gender inequalities in access to land. The positive relationship between education and land security reinforces findings by Goldstein et al. (2018) showing that formal education enhances awareness of legal rights and increases the capacity to navigate complex land governance systems.

On the other hand, households that owned more land expressed less security about their land tenure. Despite its apparent surprise, this result is in line with Muchomba (2017) and Deininger et al. (2021), who noted that in situations with weak institutions, larger land parcels are frequently more vulnerable to land disputes and administrative delays. Large landholdings are, in fact, more noticeable and more likely to be the target of conflicting claims from other parties. These findings demonstrate that, especially for large or valuable landholdings, land registration programs ought to be paired with strong dispute resolution mechanisms and more straightforward administrative processes. The high expense of land registration, which frequently deters owners of sizable landholdings from registering them, is another factor contributing to this circumstance (Guinin Asso et al., 2022). These observations highlight how household characteristics—such as the size of land owned—can shape access to land rights and the sense of security attached to them. Our results support that household characteristics influence access to land rights. They underscore the importance of implementing pro-poor and gender-sensitive land registration programs tailored to the realities of different household profiles.

This study confirms that land tenure security contributes significantly to the three pillars of sustainable development. Specifically, the results validate hypothesis H1.1, which posits that land tenure rights positively influence the economic development of farm households. They also support hypothesis H2.1, indicating that land tenure has a positive impact on environmental sustainability. Finally, the findings confirm hypothesis H3.1, which suggests that land rights have a positive influence on social development and pro-poor growth. Then our results highlight that secure land rights are a fundamental asset for rural communities. By strengthening household stability, encouraging investment, and fostering social cohesion, they provide a solid foundation for rural transformation.

Economically, our results show that tenure security encourages households to invest more confidently in agricultural inputs, equipment, and infrastructure. This finding demonstrate that secure land rights reduce uncertainty and stimulate long-term planning (Abdulai et al., 2011; Bambio and Agha, 2018; Deng et al., 2020; Long et al., 2024). Additionally, improved access to credit following land certification observed in our data highlighted the role of land documentation in unlocking financial services for smallholder farmers (Zhao and Guo, 2022).

Socially, land security enhances gender equality, community cohesion, and intergenerational transfer of land. However, these outcomes largely depend on the type and strength of tenure security (Sun et al., 2025; Van Gelder, 2009). Even where legal tenure security is high through formal titles, weak perceived security—arising from boundary disputes, elite capture, or poor enforcement—may limit women’s effective control over land and discourage youth from long-term investments (Liu et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2025; Van Gelder, 2009). Conversely, strong perceived security within community-based tenure systems can foster social cohesion and facilitate land transfers even in the absence of formal documentation (Van Gelder, 2009; Flintan et al., 2024). These effects align with Valkonen (2021) and Pellissery and Lødemel (2020) who view land ownership as a cornerstone of social citizenship. The legal recognition of women’s land rights contributes to greater agency and household welfare (Bayisenge, 2015; Nguyen and Le, 2023). Youth also benefit from secure tenure through improved inheritance channels and long-term access to productive assets.

Environmentally, tenure security promotes the adoption of sustainable land use practices, including agroforestry, long-term fallowing, and organic soil amendments. These practices reflect a commitment to stewardship that is facilitated by well-defined property rights (Adechian et al., 2020; Adimassu et al., 2016; Azadi et al., 2021). The reintegration of fallows and tree crops into farming systems aligns with the principles articulated by Ostrom (1990) who emphasize the importance of secure tenure for effective collective resource management. Furthermore, improved environmental stewardship directly enhances long-term food security and resilience to climate variability.

Our findings affirm the integrative role of land tenure security in fostering economic opportunity, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability in rural contexts.

Our findings should also be interpreted in light of the multidimensional nature of land tenure security. Legal, perceived, and de facto tenure security can each influence sustainable development outcomes in different ways (Arnot et al., 2011; Fenske, 2011). For example, legal rights may strengthen access to formal credit but may not reduce land-related conflicts if perceived security remains low (Akowedaho et al., 2022; Arnot et al., 2011; Guinin Asso et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2025). Conversely, strong community-based rights may foster social cohesion and intergenerational transfers even in the absence of formal documentation (Sun et al., 2025; Valkonen, 2021; Van Gelder, 2009). This is particularly relevant in Benin, where customary systems and local norms coexist with statutory land tenure laws. Future interventions should therefore aim to align these dimensions by strengthening both the legal recognition of rights and the institutions that underpin farmers’ perceptions of security.

Although the primary analysis demonstrated the positive effects of land rights on economic, social, and environmental development, it is important to highlight that the strength and legal recognition of land tenure further amplify these effects.

Descriptive statistics show that only a small proportion of households possess formal land titles (3%) or ADC/CFR certificates (34%), while others rely on land use certificates (18%) or have no certificate (45%). In line with previous studies (e.g., Deininger and Jin, 2006; Ekpodessi and Nakamura, 2022; Place, 2009), and considering the legal framework of Benin, where ADC/CFR certificates (customary land rights) are formally recognized under the 2013 and 2017 Land and Domain Code, the testimonies collected during the survey indicate that households with stronger forms of land documentation (particularly land titles and ADC/CFR certificates) benefit more significantly from access to credit, investments in agricultural practices, improvements in social status, and sustainable land management initiatives compared to those with only land use certificates or no certificate. For example, households holding formal land titles or ADC/CFR certificates reported greater investments in agroforestry practices, better access to formal credit for agricultural expansion, and increased participation in local governance structures, as evidenced by the testimonies of household heads.

This trend suggests that the stronger the legal security of land tenure — from no certificate to land use certificate, to ADC/CFR certificates, and ultimately to full land titles — the greater the positive impacts on economic growth, environmental conservation, and social stability. These findings provide supportive evidence for hypotheses H1.2, H2.2, and H3.2. Future research should formally test these differential effects through stratified or multi-group analysis comparing outcomes across types of land rights.

Unlike many previous studies that have examined land tenure effects in disciplinary silos—focusing separately on agriculture, gender, or conservation (Asaaga et al., 2020; Platteau, 1996)—this study offers a systemic assessment of how secure land rights simultaneously influence economic, social, and environmental outcomes. The use of structural equation modeling (SEM) enables us to capture both direct and indirect effects, revealing the interdependencies across dimensions.

For instance, increased agricultural income (economic) was found to support the adoption of conservation practices (environmental), while gender-inclusive access to land (social) contributed to improved food security and household resilience (economic) (Asaaga et al., 2020). These dynamic interactions reinforce Jabareen’s call for integrated frameworks that reflect the complex, interlinked nature of sustainable development (Jabareen, 2008). This methodological integration offers a more complete understanding of the multifaceted role of land rights in promoting rural transformation.

Several actionable recommendations emerge from our findings for policy and practice: