Modern research methods that determine morphophysiology of plant objects require an integrated approach. As noted by Yudina et al. (2022) and Konchekov et al. (2023), the integrated approach should combine different methods of obtaining data on plant physiology and morphology in real time. Arshaghi et al. (2023), Afzaal et al. (2021), Bangari et al. (2022), Ivanyuk et al. (2020), Mohanty et al. (2016), and Dorokhov et al. (2019) believe that compliance with certain methodological approaches and technical requirements in obtaining information on the state of the plant organism allows to identify the presence of pathogens that negatively affect the growth and development of plants. On one hand, real-time monitoring of plant diseases at early stages and in real-time is an urgent and important problem of food security, since pathogens can destroy crops and synthesize a wide range of toxins dangerous for animals and humans (Rahman et al., 2022; Das et al., 2021), on the other hand, a wide range of different optical methods are already used in agriculture (Ferentinos, 2018; Kumar et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2023; Onozuka et al., 2021). We would like to point out that unlike canonical common laboratory methods (such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and other methods used in biochemistry), optical methods of analysis are non-invasive, fast, simple, have relatively low cost, and allow rapid analysis and results.

Among optical methods, the most common are reflectance spectroscopy in visible spectra and IR region, Raman spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, temporally resolved THz spectroscopy, and fluorescence. IR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy are most common optical methods for diagnosis of mycoses (Zubler and Yoon, 2020; Zedler et al., 2023; Patel et al., 2023).

However, to develop fundamentally new methods of analysis, diagnosis and prevention of diseases it is necessary to construct a system of a fundamentally new methodology for assessing the risks of plant infection and spread of infectious and parasitic diseases. For potato crops as the most traditional crop for cultivation on private farms, soil and organic matter used as fertilizer can be a base for development and spread of the studied infectious and parasitic diseases.

The issue of pathogen adaptation to climate change (Yanagisawa et al., 2021; Parums, 2024; Yi et al., 2019), disinfectants (Lyashchuk et al., 2022; Naciri et al., 2011; Lyashchuk et al., 2023) and even specially developed ‘resistant’ varieties is extremely acute. In medicine, this issue was raised several decades ago. With the increase in the number of antimicrobial compounds, mankind received a surge in the growth of resistant strains (Zhanel et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2024; Bhat et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2025). In this ‘race’, pathogens have an advantage: with a lucky coincidence of circumstances, new generations of resistant bacteria can infect plant material within a few days, and a new antimicrobial drug or resistant strain will be developed and tested in several years.

Moreover, the use of synthetic biology technologies in working with genetic material has expanded the list of pathogenic biological objects, which, in addition to biological risk factors that are integral organisms, prions (protein-like infectious particles) (Casey and Sleator, 2024; Supattapone, 2020), insertion sequences (Is elements) (Shintani et al., 2023; Cheng et al., 2020), DNA transposons (bacterial and eukaryotic), retrotransposons (viral and non-viral), plasmids and other mobile genetic elements (Ahmadi et al., 2020; Kerkvliet et al., 2024). Some researchers point to a correlation between the increase in the number of resistant strains of plant disease pathogens and the rise in electromagnetic pollution levels, including background ultra-high frequency radiation. They hypothesize that electromagnetic exposure may hypothetically influence the physiological processes of microorganisms in a particular way, altering their resistance to adverse environmental factors and phytosanitary measures (Kerkvliet et al., 2024; Leuthner and Meyer, 2021; Xu et al., 2020; Dashti et al., 2022).

Also quite widespread is the theory of chemical stimulated mutations, which finds confirmation in studies of the appearance of resistant strains of microorganisms, as well as the formation of L-forms of bacteria (Xu et al., 2020; Dashti et al., 2022) and viral complexes (Lico et al., 2009; Ksenofontov et al., 2018; Dutta et al., 2024), which lead to long-term carriage and chronic forms of latent infection (most often these are viral complexes XA and XS). As a result, the plant organism is slowly and subtly destroyed under the influence of infectious agents, which may eventually lead to secondary infections and lethal intoxication in case of a sharp weakening of immunity or severe stress caused by drought or nutrient deficiency. Thus, not only the development of resistant varieties, but also regular monitoring, threat analysis and the application of phytoclearance measures against infected plants are necessary. Only an integrated approach to addressing the problem of yield losses and seed infection due to high potato disease incidence can minimize the annual damage to agriculture caused by the emergence and spread of infectious diseases of potato and vegetable crops.

There are many different mechanisms and routes of infectious and parasitic diseases transmission. The prevalence of a particular contagion route will depend on the etiological, morphological and physiological characteristics of the pathogen. Analyses have shown that three mechanisms and five contagion routes are specific for infectious and parasitic diseases of potato (Figure 1).

Brief description of biological risk factors by parameters of mechanisms and pathways of contagion and spread of infectious and parasitic diseases of potato is presented in Supplementary Table S1. To process the results obtained during the study, databases were created in Microsoft Excel.

The methodology for assessing the level of biological risk of the emergence and spread of infectious and parasitic diseases of potatoes based on the parameters of the mechanisms and routes of pathogen transmission includes the following stages:

Let us consider each of them in more detail.

Various optical methods are widely used in agriculture. Unlike canonical conventional laboratory methods such as PCR, ELISA, etc., optical methods of analysis are non-invasive, fast, simple, relatively low cost, and allow rapid analysis and results. Among optical methods, the most common are reflectance spectroscopy in the visible and IR region, Raman spectroscopy, hyperspectral imaging, temporally resolved THz spectroscopy and fluorescence. IR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy (Onozuka et al., 2021; Zubler and Yoon, 2020; Zedler et al., 2023; Patel et al., 2023; Yanagisawa et al., 2021) are examples of the application of optical techniques to diagnose fungal infestation.

In Ferentinos (2018), Kumar et al. (2021), and Kumar et al. (2023), differences in the optical characteristics of pathogenic and nonpathogenic fungal species and strains were investigated using fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy. Differences in the fluorescence spectra of some pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungal species were determined using excitation-emission matrices and principal component method. It was found that there are two zones in the excitation-emission matrix showing maximum differences in fluorescence of pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi.

However, the above presented studies do not allow to determine and establish the nature of the occurrence of infestations, as well as to perform an assessment of the spread of diseases among plants, which together with the developed methodology of infection spread will allow to provide forecasting of the spread of infection and to develop preventive measures to eliminate its spread.

The occurrence and spread of potato diseases caused by viruses, viroids and virus complexes have been investigated in the works of such Russian and foreign scientists as: Ksenofontov et al. (2018), Dutta et al. (2024), Visser et al. (2024), and Karasev and Gray (2013), etc.

Peculiarities of pathogenic effect on potato of pathogens of bacterial etiology (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. Sepedonicus (Cms), Ralstonia solanacearium (RS), Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearium (Lso), representatives of the genera: Pectobacterium, Dickeya, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and phytoplasmas of Mollicutes class) were considered in the works of such scientists as: Chen et al. (2022), Rivera-Zuluaga et al. (2023), Wang et al. (2022), Citti et al. (2018), and Waleron et al. (2019), etc.

The dynamics of potato diseases caused by golden, pale and stem nematodes have been studied and described in Wainer and Dinh (2021), Wainer and Dinh (2021), and Yu et al. (2012), etc.

The peculiarities of pathogenic effect on potato of pathogens of mycotic etiology (Colletotrichum atramentarium, Oospora pustulans, Streptomyces scabies, Spongospora subterranea, Helminthosporium solani, Synchytrium endobioticum, Phoma exiqua, Fusarium spp., Pythium ultimum, Ascochyta lycopersici Brunaud, fungi of genera Alternaria, Verticillium, etc.) were considered in the works of such scientists as: Goodell et al. (1982), Przetakiewicz (2015), Deb et al. (2020), Woudenberg et al. (2013), Woudenberg et al. (2015), Schmey et al. (2024), and Johnson and Dung (2010).

Available data from research results show the diversity of approaches and depth of study of potato disease problems. The proposed methodology covers the features of 46 potato pathogens of viral (Ksenofontov et al., 2018; Dutta et al., 2024; Visser et al., 2024; Karasev and Gray, 2013; Dissanayaka Mudiyanselage et al., 2018), bacterial (Chen et al., 2022; Rivera-Zuluaga et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022; Citti et al., 2018; Waleron et al., 2019), helminthic (Wainer and Dinh, 2021; Yu et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2022) and mycotic etiologies (Goodell et al., 1982; Przetakiewicz, 2015; Deb et al., 2020; Woudenberg et al., 2013; Woudenberg et al., 2015).

Modeling of plant disease detection systems using artificial intelligence has been studied by researchers such as Abbas et al. (2024), Rathor et al. (2024), and Núñez-Muñoz et al. (2025).

As a result, the combination of modern approaches in the field of potato plant disease detection and the proposed methodology will make it possible to develop a comprehensive system for monitoring and forecasting the spread of infections, which will make it possible to take timely and effective measures to protect the crop. The use of optical methods in combination with the analysis of data on pathogens will increase the accuracy of diagnosis and efficiency of prevention, contributing to sustainable agricultural development.

According to the results of analysis and assessment of the level of biological risk of occurrence and spread of infectious and parasitic diseases of potato according to the parameters of contagion mechanisms and pathways, the following conclusions can be drawn:

In the group with low risk level the majority of pathogens of infectious and parasitic diseases of potato have bacterial etiology (80%), for average risk level the most typical pathogens are bacterial (44.5%) and mycosis etiology (33.3%), in the group with high risk level the majority of pathogens have viral etiology (66.6%), in the group with very high risk level the majority of pathogens have mycosis etiology (75%).

Plasticity of contagion of viral complexes in most cases is due to the latency of manifestation of clinical signs of the disease. The reservoir of infection is planting material, as latent viral forms are practically not detected in tubers neither at the stage of harvesting nor at the storage stage. Viral agents become active after potato planting and germination, reducing productivity and adversely affecting yields.

The plasticity of fungal contagion is due not only to the high probability of latent disease, but also to the high rate of disease spread due to the possibility of spore formation. Spores are spread over long distances by wind and rainwater, which causes unpredictability of spread and infestation of plants in the field and leads to poor detectability of pathogens during storage of planting material.

Latent forms of tuber contamination by viruses and fungal spores require close attention, as infected planting material has lower quality and is a threat to future yield losses.

Thus, the methodology proposed by our research team will enhance the possibilities for monitoring, threat analysis and application of measures for treatment of potato plants and separation of healed plants from infected ones.