Interviewees with expertise across all four countries mentioned the opportunity to create innovative financial mechanisms that support transitions in food production practices. Specifically, producers need support with the start-up, maintenance, and opportunity costs of transitioning to more sustainable forms of agriculture and land management. In Brazil, there is demand for scaling up financial mechanisms that incentivize forest conservation (e.g., payments for environmental services programs) and providing economic support for irrigation technologies and low-carbon agriculture. In Colombia and Kenya, improvements in the availability and affordability of insurance, credit, and subsidies provided by the national government could alleviate financial risks, especially for smallholder farmers. For example, national and county governments in Kenya could subsidize insurance for farmers by coordinating with the private sector on improved insurance offerings, such as index insurance plans that offer valuable safety nets in the face of climate-related crop damage or livestock deaths. Insurance subsidies could also be extended to compensate for crop failure beyond staple crops such as maize. In the UAE, economic incentives that enable Emiratis in rural areas to establish agriculture systems that control for environmental and growth conditions to optimize production could help increase the availability of fresh produce in local markets beyond major urban centers.

In all four countries, interviewees identified the opportunity to improve the quality and accessibility of extension services and training for farmers. In Brazil, this includes improving farmer education on the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity as well as integrating plans for technology transfer to farmers. Extension services that support the adoption of improved management practices could facilitate the regeneration of degraded agricultural lands in Brazil. In Colombia, extension services in domestic universities could introduce agricultural research and development opportunities and educate farmers about the use and implementation of agricultural technologies. Similarly, extension services could strengthen processes of science and knowledge appropriation where different actors could contribute complementary knowledge about food system challenges. Interviewees noted that both public and private extension services are critical to supporting farmers across Kenya. County governments in Kenya could improve extension by allocating more funds to extension services that improve salaries for extension agents, expand the geographical range of extension services, and provide in-depth training to farmers on topics such as climate-smart agriculture and agroecology, among others. Additionally, county and national government bodies could better coordinate private and public extension services. To support the expansion of modern agriculture in the UAE, national universities could establish agricultural research departments that offer educational opportunities to develop technical expertise in climate-smart agricultural practices. Interviewees also mentioned that cross-sectoral organizations, such as Silal, the UAE’s leading Agri-Tech Food company, could help build farmer awareness and technical assistance programs to use climate-smart technologies in modern food production systems.

For all four countries, interviewees highlighted the opportunity to improve access to farming inputs because many farmers lack access to machinery, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and improved seed varieties. They highlighted that improving access to inputs could greatly increase productivity and efficiency for all producers, but especially smallholder farmers. In all countries, interviewees suggested that improved access to inputs could be facilitated by increasing national production of those inputs, lowering dependency on imports, and by improving farmers’ access to credit and financial mechanisms. For example, smallholder cooperatives that share the cost of expensive machinery were cited as one opportunity for Brazil. In Kenya and Colombia, similar efforts to improve access to affordable irrigation technology and agricultural machinery (e.g., systems that could be adapted to Colombia’s range of topographies or the hard conditions of water access present in some regions of Kenya) for small-holder farmers could greatly assist a transformation in production practices. For Kenya, interviewees also noted that efforts to improve access to inputs should be extended to include those necessary for livestock production, such as feed additives and veterinary care (e.g., vaccines), which are often costly for farmers seeking to expand their livestock herds.

Interviewees repeatedly mentioned expanding the availability of climate-resilient seed varieties, especially drought-tolerant and indigenous crops, as especially important in supporting transitions towards more sustainable production practices. For example, growing saline- and drought-tolerant crop varieties with unique salt-tolerant plant growth promoting bacteria could help enhance the productivity of plants facing salt stress in the hyper-arid climate of the UAE. The UAE government could create incentives that promote the domestic production of these species. In Colombia and Kenya, the national government could promote indigenous crop production by updating national laws to make both the exchange and the sale of indigenous crop seeds legal. To ensure the quality of indigenous seeds, county governments could provide financial and logistical support for local seed banks, create participatory guarantee schemes to certify seed quality and origin, and integrate local volunteers (including farmers) with expertise in indigenous crop production into local extension program outreach.

Since all four studied countries exist within a globalized food system, opportunities to incorporate sustainability standards into agricultural trade agreements could help to improve production practices. Such standards may include trade agreements that enforce policies that protect threatened environments, maintain fair food prices, and promote food safety. In Brazil, this opportunity could be advanced by aligning production practices with the sustainability standards of major importing regions, such as the European Union’s deforestation-free supply chain initiative. Colombia and Brazil face similar traceability challenges in their beef, cacao, and coffee sectors, and could implement improved traceability programs that help ensure products are deforestation free. In Kenya, the principles outlined in the standards for horticulture crops, such as the KS 1758 Certification Scheme, could be extended to promote sustainability, safety, and quality in livestock products and fiber crops. Training producers on how to meet these standards could introduce higher-value opportunities for regional and international trade while simultaneously improving the quality of local food production. In the UAE, developing traceability systems that leverage blockchain technologies to track the sourcing of food items imported for domestic consumption could enable identification of the associated environmental impacts of imported food products.

Interviewees identified a common opportunity to enhance the role of information and communication technology (ICT) to support food production systems. In Brazil, an interviewee suggested that remote sensing could be better used to collect data on farms and generate information for farmers to assist in management and decision-making. In Colombia, interviewees suggest integrating mobile phone technology and other connectivity technologies into agriculture production. For example, more direct relationships with distributors and consumers could reduce intermediaries to make supply chains more efficient and generate better opportunities for producers. In Kenya, extension officers and development programs could scale up the integration of mobile phone technology into agriculture training and outreach programs that help farmers and other value chain members access relevant agricultural information. Additionally, the Kenyan government could expand and improve national ICT infrastructure through public-private partnerships with telecommunications providers such as SafariCom. In the UAE, expanding communication services to offer farmers frequent harvesting forecasts and information on recommended agricultural supplies to improve crop quality could help to improve yields.

Interviewees in all four countries repeatedly mentioned the need for investments in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to improve production practices. In Brazil, this includes the implementation of sustainable intensification practices and the adoption of low-carbon agriculture. Investing in, scaling up, and increasing smallholder access to programs which provide access to credit, training, and technical extension services (e.g., the Brazilian Agricultural Policy for Climate Adaptation and Low Carbon Emissions (ABC+) program) could reduce agricultural emissions while increasing farmer profits. Similar strategies to improve climate-smart agriculture, including with livestock, were mentioned as key opportunities to improve production in Colombia. In Kenya, continued support of the Kenyan Crops Act and the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Program (KSCAP) could improve access to irrigation technology and water and soil conservation. Further, extending investments to include climate-smart livestock subsidies could increase livestock production and decrease the entry costs of livestock production for smallholder farmers. In the UAE, national-level climate-smart water and energy pricing and policies could promote sustainable water use and transitions towards lower emissions energy sources. Policies that incentivize the development of technologies that increase the utilization of the country’s most abundant resources – solar radiation energy and sea water – may also offer opportunities to transition towards more sustainable and efficient food production systems.

Interviewees with expertise in Brazilian, Colombian, and Kenyan food systems all identified the opportunity to modify land laws to support improved domestic production practices. In Brazil, the government could continue to clarify land ownership and use, including by clearly delineating Indigenous territories and protected areas in the Amazon, to minimize land grabbing. Similarly, in Colombia, the full implementation of The Peace Agreement, which aimed to end internal armed conflict with FARC (the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), and the outcomes of current negotiations with other actors engaged in illegal activities could be completed to secure the execution of resources and projects related to the agreement (e.g., land formalization, substitution of illegal crops, laws that support inclusive business, and the inclusion of vulnerable actors and ex-combatants). Such initiatives could contribute to overcoming food system’s structural problems in the regions affected the most by the conflict and illegal economies. National land laws in Kenya could be better aligned with agricultural laws to allow for collective land ownership that boosts yields and decreases risk for smallholder farmers. Interviewees noted that improved land laws combined with effective cooperative ownership models could increase technology adoption and improve yields. Tanzania, a country which has enacted laws that allow for formalized collective land ownership was mentioned as a model example by interviewees. County governments in Kenya could also help to reduce land-use conflict by considering the needs of Indigenous communities, farmers, and wildlife when allocating resources and regulating land use. Conflict mitigation efforts, such as collaborative land use planning with input from affected groups, especially indigenous communities, may be particularly helpful.

Many interviewees mentioned that there is an opportunity to increase collaboration with development organizations in Brazil, Colombia, and Kenya. Interviewees emphasized that accountability for development organizations would be key to their success in improving production practices. In Brazil and Colombia, interviewees frequently stated that enhancing accountability includes encouraging collaboration amongst development organizations, so that they could build on each other’s resources, strengths, and goals. In Kenya, interviewees frequently referred to the large number of agricultural development projects such as those funded by the United Nations, the World Bank, foreign governments (e.g., United States Agency for International Development), and independent non-profits as lacking in coordination. Platforms and opportunities for organizations working throughout Kenya could be created to better coordinate development efforts, especially those that interface directly with smallholder farmers. Additionally, national and county governments could create long-term monitoring strategies and accountability structures to ensure that the impacts of development projects are long-lasting and positive for local communities.

Interviewees identified a need in all countries to promote sustainable agricultural development through improving institutional capacity and coordination. This could include aligning national policies with regional and international goals and facilitating dialogues between diverse stakeholder groups. Strengthening governance and institutional coordination in these ways could increase the adoption of climate-smart and sustainable agricultural practices and technologies. In Brazil, interviewees identified a need for federal government support for environmental and sustainable agriculture programs and policies to appropriately temper the political and economic power of the agri-business sector. In Colombia and Kenya, policies that prioritize improving the productivity of smallholder farmers, such as creating more amenable land-use laws for cooperative agriculture, were referenced as key. In Colombia, this includes policies to support the full implementation of the Peace Agreement that address informality and illegality within the agriculture sector. In Kenya, interviewees mentioned that the national government could improve coordination between ministries that govern agriculture through more deliberate planning and communication on shared goals related to agriculture. This includes coordination between regional (e.g., East African Agricultural Productivity Programme) and international (e.g., Sustainable Development Goals) development efforts as well.

The threatened status of Brazilian and Colombian forests was an important topic of discussion amongst interviewees with expertise in these countries. In Brazil, interviewees highlighted the need to improve monitoring and enforcement of the Brazilian Forest Code. Separately, strengthening private-sector zero-deforestation commitments could also reduce land grabbing and illegal deforestation for agriculture. In regions where illegal deforestation persists to create pastureland, interviewees mentioned that improving full cattle supply chain traceability is critical. Similarly in Colombia, interviewees mentioned the opportunity to prioritize programs that address the needs of local economies in regions of conflict including communities involved in both legal and illegal deforestation activities. In this context, actions to reduce deforestation may include actions like land tenure formalization, access to credit, and payments for ecosystem management.

Interviewees highlighted the need to focus on food sovereignty to improve production practices in Brazil and Colombia. In Brazil, this includes electing politicians without conflicts of interest who support environmental and sustainable agriculture programs and decreasing the power of agri-business lobbying on government decision-making. In Colombia, this includes supporting leaders at all levels of government that support communities’ self-determination and participatory processes regarding food sovereignty (e.g., what to produce and how in their territories) and food system resiliency. Supporting leaders that address migration and displacement-related issues was also mentioned by interviewees in Colombia as an opportunity to improve local food economies while avoiding an increase in illegal activities.

Brazil could further develop domestic and international markets for alternative proteins (including plant-based meat, fermentation-derived protein products, and cultivated meat) through improved financial and policy support. To make alternative proteins more cost competitive, the government could reduce tax benefits and subsidies for animal-derived proteins. To reduce policy and regulatory hurdles, the Brazilian Congress could create more flexibility in its definition of “meat” to include plant-based meat and milk and support capacity-building for local communities to scale-up production and harvesting of local alternative proteins, such as Brazil nuts. In the UAE, controlled environment agricultural systems could enable year-round production while protecting crops from pest damage and disease risks. Multi-sector investment in technologies that increase the utilization of existing and emerging technologies, including the use of solar panels and liquid desiccant-based cooling, could be leveraged to improve production efficiencies of controlled environment agricultural systems, such as to make the design of new greenhouses and net houses more suitable for the country’s climatic conditions.

Interviewees noted that governments in all four countries could mobilize and coordinate relevant agencies to create or revitalize a national strategy for reducing FLW. National governments could establish commitments that may be carried out by a variety of subnational actors and governing bodies depending on the country. Brazil has proposed and implemented a variety of policies to mitigate food waste, including organic waste composting in the National Policy on Solid Waste and other policies that aim to reduce food insecurity by donating surplus food from markets and restaurants. There is a need for additional support for the development, implementation, monitoring, and enforcement of the Inter-Sectoral Strategy for the Reduction of Food Loss and Waste in Brazil and other strategically designed policies at the municipal, state, and national level that focus on the most significant sources of FLW. Colombia’s National Policy for the Prevention of FLW seeks to reduce food losses through consumption, agricultural planning, the right to property titling to improve pre- and post-harvest conditions, and the prevention of FLW. This plan requires enforcement, financial support, execution at the national and sub-national levels, and stronger commitment from industry and incumbent actors. The Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Co-operatives could collaborate with other relevant agencies to create a strategy specifically targeting the reduction of FLW since no such strategy currently exists in Kenya. This strategy should focus on coordinating subnational efforts on FLW since in Kenya county governments are largely responsible for implementing such policies. In the UAE, the Ministry of Climate Change and the Environment leads “Ne’ma” (the UAE’s national initiative to reduce FLW guided by the vision of the President of the UAE) as well as the Food Waste Pledge, national initiatives dedicated to reducing FLW from the hospitality and foodservice industry. Such initiatives may be strengthened by developing data collection systems at the local level that catalog the import and availability of food commodities in each emirate to monitor food quality and avoid product wastage.

Interviewees mentioned the importance of harmonizing approaches for collecting and reporting FLW data as a part of national strategies. For example, interviewees highlighted that in Latin America there is a paucity of national-level data on FLW specific to individual countries, such as Brazil and Colombia, because most data are collected at the regional level. Similarly, Kenya and the UAE lack systematically collected data on FLW, which hinders the ability for policymakers to design effective FLW reduction strategies. Harmonizing FLW data generation including on the magnitude, causes, and stages of the supply chain where FLW occurs could help countries better understand the nature of FLW at the national level. This data could be leveraged by governments to identify unique strategies to reduce FLW such as direct messaging and educational efforts.

Interviewees with expertise in all four countries mentioned the opportunity to improve value chain linkages, such as those caused by seasonality, long farm to market distances, poor infrastructure, and a lack of demand. Synchronizing supply and demand through improved value chain linkages, especially those that connect producers and consumers, could help to reduce food loss. In Colombia and Kenya, this includes contract guarantees between producers and suppliers, including local food traders. In Kenya, extension officers and other county-level programs could help farmers identify new markets to sell produce, both locally and regionally. Further, interviewees mentioned building connections between rural producers, urban consumers, and public institutions (e.g., schools, hospitals) as an opportunity to create stable demand and reduce food loss. In the UAE, interviewees highlighted the opportunity of creating guaranteed demand contracts that align local consumption and food supply, especially for highly perishable food items such as fresh vegetables. These contracts could strengthen relationships between domestic food producers, retailers, and food service providers, and could be additionally supported by existing domestic food redistribution networks such as the UAE Food Bank and the Red Crescent.

All four countries could leverage novel technologies to help minimize post-harvest losses. In Brazil, Colombia, and Kenya, the government and private sector could incentivize the development of smart-storage systems, which use data inputs such as temperature and humidity to monitor the quality of food, to prevent losses. Technologies that enable reverse logistics and help to optimize supply–demand dynamics for perishable foods could also be useful in Brazil and Colombia. In the UAE, novel food preservation technologies, such as nanotechnology applications, could help extend the shelf life of fresh produce.

For Brazil, Kenya, and the UAE interviewees discussed that improved education on food waste in schools and other public forums (e.g., through advertising campaigns) may help to reduce household food waste. In the UAE, education campaigns such as the 2022 “Food for Life” campaign, were mentioned as an opportunity that could help improve consumer awareness of food waste prevention practices. Campaigns to decrease food waste at settings with buffet-style eating settings, such as at hotels and during major religious holidays, could be particularly effective. Interviewees also noted that such programming could promote the consumption and production of local and seasonal foods across all four countries. Such programming could potentially lead to a rise in plant-based product intake and a change in the mentality of Brazilian consumers, who often discard food due to its perceived abundance and ease of replacement. Moreover, the slow food movement could be expanded to further decentralize the food system and empower producers, chefs, sellers, and educators to facilitate a new relationship with food, especially through providing youth with new experiences in relation to food. Interviewees highlighted the success of seasonal food availability calendars in Kenya to reduce food waste in households. Additional efforts to reduce intermediaries in the supply chain could also support the reduction of FLW.

Interviewees discussed how governments in all countries could promote technology development that supports a circular economy and expands the end uses for food discards and byproducts. In Brazil, this includes scaling up circular agro-economic techniques and local initiatives to reduce food and waste, such as through connecting urban gardens with composters and reducing food waste from street markets. In Colombia, legislation, tax incentives and intersectoral research support is required to help small, medium and big enterprises transform production and consumption processes that rely on natural resources and the diversity of Colombian ecosystems including native fruits, vegetables, biomaterials and advanced use of composting processes. In Kenya, the government could align its FLW reduction efforts with those of the African Circular Economy Alliance to include efforts that reduce food waste as well as center circularity in multilateral negotiations and regional processes.

Since food quality can deteriorate quickly in tropical climates, interviewees in Brazil emphasized the importance of improving cold chain infrastructure, road quality to facilitate fast transportation, and on-farm food storage to reduce post-harvest losses. Alternative energy sources could help reduce cold chain emissions. In Kenya and Colombia, interviewees mentioned that building collective storage facilities for crop and livestock products could reduce FLW. For example, county governments could partner with aid organizations and commodity organizations (e.g., East Africa Grain Council) to install community storage facilities, especially in rural areas, for crops and animal products (e.g., milk). Local cooperative farming groups could purchase and install similar storage facilities with help from development organizations.

Interviewees noted that policies and financial support are needed to better connect producers with hundreds of existing food banks in Brazil and to create new food banks in areas with high food insecurity. Additionally, infrastructure is needed to improve access to perishable food in food banks while it is still of high quality. In Colombia, supporting food banks and food distribution organizations to make food distribution more efficient by better planning supply and demand could help reduce FLW. Food banks and other food distribution organizations could be strengthened by providing better technological tools to support storage and distribution efforts between those who have food availability and the people that need it the most. Improving or clarifying the regulatory landscape to remove perceived or real legislative barriers to food donation and building intersectoral strategies of collaboration between the government, private actors, and these organizations could help improve the use and distribution of food. In the UAE, strategies to reduce FLW in hotels, restaurants, and cafes, could include AI FLW management technologies and the expansion of food distribution organizations and national food bank initiatives.

Countries could incentivize technology development to help reduce FLW by reducing financial barriers. A wide variety of technologies ranging from post-harvest storage to mobile phone applications have been developed to help reduce FLW, but many lack financial support. In Brazil, Colombia, and Kenya, there are opportunities to incentivize technology development in the areas of information systems for production, commercialization, inverse logistics to anticipate FLW in retailing, improved infrastructure, and optimization of food distribution networks. In Kenya, the national government could develop market incentives, such as removing import taxes on FLW technologies and providing subsidies for innovative FLW technologies. Such efforts may be well supported by collaborations with foreign and domestic businesses to identify barriers to technology development, such as the cost of research and development, regulatory hurdles, or knowledge gaps.

Another opportunity mentioned to reduce FLW in all four countries is to increase knowledge and awareness among producers and traders. In Colombia, this includes training farmers on how to use improved storage technologies, such as digital technologies that connect producers and buyers through shorter supply chains and minimize middlemen. For example, in Kenya the Kenya Bureau of Standards (a governmental agency) could improve compliance and enforcement (e.g., by hiring more quality control agents). Additionally, the Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Co-operatives could create government partnerships with crop interest groups, such as Eastern Africa Grain Council and Trademark East Africa, to build farmers’ understanding and adherence to regulations.

All countries could promote nutritious and indigenous crops suitable for cultivation in local environments to improve nutritional security of the domestic population and provide important ecological and soil health benefits. The increased production and consumption of such crops could also preserve or revitalize historic food production cultural practices. In Brazil, “non-conventional edible plants,” which have nutritional, medicinal, and cultural value, have received attention from the nutrition and agronomy communities in recent years. Funding and trained personnel are needed to increase research and extension on the production, culinary, and medicinal uses of these plants. In Colombia and Kenya, the national government could promote indigenous crop production by updating national laws to make both the exchange and the sale of indigenous crop seeds legal. To ensure the quality of indigenous seeds, county governments could provide financial and logistical support for local seed banks, create participatory guarantee schemes to certify seeds, and integrate local volunteers familiar with indigenous crop production into local extension outreach. Extension officers, schools, and local nonprofits could also educate smallholder farmers on how to grow indigenous crops and incorporate them into daily diets. In the UAE, farmer incentives are needed to promote the domestic production of saline- and drought-tolerant plant species that are high in nutritional value suitable for cultivation in the country’s hyper-arid environment. For example, quinoa and salicornia (i.e., glassworts) are crops suitable for growth in marginal environments that could be promoted to support ambitions to increase the consumption of plant-based foods within the country and improve the nutritional status of the population.

Interviewees mentioned that all four countries could pursue strategies, policies, and interventions on the supply and demand sides of food to create appropriate environments and market linkages for affordable and healthier food availability. For example, meat is an important part of Brazilian culture, and many Brazilians consider meat consumption as a symbol of status and economic prosperity. Creating new cultural traditions around consuming alternative proteins could increase its consumption. Other opportunities mentioned included increasing the attractiveness of fruit and vegetable displays in supermarkets and updating school food procurement programs to include local, healthy foods. In Colombia healthy food markets could receive more support from the government, the food industry and retailers. Such collaborations could focus on strategies that build consumer understanding of the relationship between food, health, and the environment, as well as increase the variety and types of food consumed. In Kenya, collaborations between the government, researchers, and the private sector could be mobilized to create healthier, more affordable, convenient foods. Such efforts to improve the cultural perceptions of healthy food could target youth, who may be less familiar with indigenous healthy vegetables and use them less frequently in their diet. In the UAE, efforts could focus on addressing cultural barriers to fresh produce consumption, such as the high consumption of fast-food due to school and employment demands. Introducing nutritious food offerings in workplace settings and encouraging more frequent healthy family meals at home could help improve eating practices across age groups.

Interviewees mentioned that dietary transitions could be accelerated if countries expand public programming focused on healthy eating. Depending on the specific dietary challenges and healthy food access barriers experienced by the national population, these public programs could take a variety of forms spanning from school meal programs to national nutrition strategies with ambitions to improve specific national health metrics. In Brazil, shifts towards healthier diets could be facilitated by scaling up public nutrition programs such as Brazil’s National School Meals Program [Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (PNAE)], as well as and reinstating latent national level initiatives such as the Food Acquisition Program [Programa de Aquisição de Alimentos (PAA)]. One interviewee suggested that the Brazilian government in partnership with national and international NGOs could invest more in strategic communication campaigns about healthy eating, following the government’s Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population. Additional funding and trained staff to lead educational school garden programs could lead to a dietary shift starting at a young age. Strategies that prioritize local sources for public food purchases in Colombia such as food for public schools, hospitals, universities, and army institutions, could support community family and peasant farms, diversify food offerings and reduce access barriers. In Kenya, interviewees referred to a successful partnership between the national government and the World Food Program (WFP), the Home-Grown School Meals Program, which provides hot meals and teaches students about the benefits of a healthy diet while contributing to the local economy by sourcing school meals from local farmers. Similar efforts to expand education on healthier diets for vulnerable groups like children could be complemented by public education campaigns that promote the consumption of fruits and vegetables, especially indigenous varieties. In the UAE, private school initiatives, such as those promoted by the Dubai Health Authority to promote increased food and vegetable intake, could be expanded to public schools to promote healthier eating in school age children. Leveraging social media and gaming platforms to provide interactive and fun experiences that teach consumers how to recognize healthier food offerings could also be an effective approach to help inspire dietary shifts in adolescents and young children.

Interviewees mentioned that all four countries could strengthen nutrition labeling and regulation. For example, in Brazil the national government could implement policies that require food companies to add large front-of-pack labeling with relevant nutrition information, including organic and content of protein, fat, sugar, and salt; it could use food nutrition labeling systems in other Latin American countries, such as Costa Rica, as models. The government could also regulate and monitor these labels and implement policies that punish companies that implement misleading labels. In Colombia and Kenya, shifts towards healthier diets might be advanced by restricting advertisements and increasing taxes for less healthy foods. In the UAE, relevant government ministries [e.g., Ministry of Health and Prevention (MoHAP)] could expand national initiatives that promote transitions towards healthier diets, including the National Nutritional Guidelines, a 50% excise tax on sweetened beverages, and the promotion of front-of-pack traffic light nutrition labels.

Opportunities to reduce financial barriers to healthy food access were mentioned by interviewees in all four countries. In Brazil, the government could develop tax incentives and subsidies to facilitate healthier eating, especially to reduce the consumption of meat and ultra-processed foods. Some interviewees mentioned that this must include improvements to the accessibility of alternative proteins. Policies to make fresh, healthy foods more affordable and accessible to diverse populations could be implemented, including scaling up the tax breaks for fresh produce some Brazilian municipalities have initiated to the federal level. In Colombia, helping communities develop territorial autonomy and improving their capabilities to grow their own food or diversify their production could scale food sovereignty and help to build greater resiliency. A range of participatory programs could facilitate novel approaches for financial support and knowledge exchange, including A Ciencia Cierta (Truthful Science), Jóvenes Rurales (Rural Youth) or Ideas para el Cambio (Ideas for Change). Similarly, in Kenya, rural communities often rely on subsistence farming to meet their nutritional needs and opportunities that improve production practices could also improve food security. In rapidly growing urban areas, like Kenya’s capital city Nairobi, consumers could benefit from government programs that decrease and/or stabilize the price of food.

Interviewees highlighted the importance of creating nutrition- and culturally-sensitive dietary guidelines to promote healthier diets. For example, in Colombia and Brazil there is an opportunity to reorganize the production of food around the nutritional needs of local communities and urban economies in Colombia and Brazil, aligned with the cultural diversity of the country. This includes adjusting dietary and nutrition guidelines to address economic and cultural realities in this region and using participatory processes to develop inclusive dietary guidelines. Interviewees mentioned this could help to promote a policy approach to food based on human rights in Colombia. In Kenya, guidelines could be supported by improving current research on the diets of Kenyans as well as clarifying government mandates and responsibilities related to nutrition.

Interviewees mentioned the opportunity to decrease food safety and quality risks in food to improve diets in Colombia and Kenya. For example, in Kenya there could be improved training for farmers on practices that reduce food safety risks as well as improved monitoring and evaluation of the safety and quality standards established by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) at the local level. The Kenyan government could also increase the budget of agencies that regulate food safety and quality (e.g., KEBS) to increase capacity and improve enforcement. Additionally, the national government could create government partnerships with crop interest groups, such as grain councils, to build farmers’ understanding and adherence to regulations. In Colombia introducing better technologies to reduce food waste including reverse logistics was mentioned as an opportunity to improve food distribution and boost the capabilities of food banks and other actors that can help vulnerable populations to have better food access. Collaborative efforts to advance regulations to secure transparent information regarding ingredients was mentioned as one way for food companies to improve their business models and facilitate better diets.

Our interviewees identified three primary tradeoffs between opportunities to improve production practices and other food system objectives. First, interviewees noted that improving production practices could increase the price of food, which may put food security at risk (especially for low-income consumers) across all four countries. Second, interviewees stated that smallholder farmers may be excluded from technological transitions towards production enhancing technologies, such as integrating novel information and communication technologies into the food supply chain and investing in climate-smart agriculture. For example, smallholder farmers in all four countries may not have the money, technical capacity, or power to adopt improved seed varieties, irrigation technologies, or other inputs that can help to improve yields. Interviewees expressed concerns that without additional forms of support for small-holders, large food producers are likely to be the primary beneficiaries of advanced food technologies.

Relatedly, interviewees across all four countries noted that improving production efficiency would likely lead to the consolidation of farms and a loss of livelihoods for smallholders. For example, switching to automated irrigation systems in the UAE could reduce the number of jobs available in agriculture. Fourth, interviewees noted that adopting technologies to improve food production could also have negative impacts on human and environmental health. In Brazil and Colombia, intensifying crop and livestock production could result in increased risk of zoonotic disease and threaten local biodiversity. Similarly, interviewees working in Kenya mentioned that improving production likely requires expanding agricultural production, which could lead to greater encroachment on habitat and increased human-wildlife conflict. Interviewees also noted that opportunities that improve the accessibility of farming inputs could result in the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers, which can threaten human and environmental health (including biodiversity) when used improperly or in excess.

Our interviewees identified three key tradeoffs between opportunities to reduce food loss and waste and other food system objectives. First, across all four countries, interviewees noted that opportunities to leverage novel technologies to minimize post-harvest food losses improvements, such as improved cold chain and packaging technology, could dramatically reduce food loss and waste across the supply chain, but could also increase other environmental impacts. For example, several interviewees with expertise in Kenyan food systems mentioned the opportunity to improve cold chain infrastructure, but noted that this would also likely greenhouse gas emissions. Increased plastic use to prolong the life of food was also a concern amongst interviewees from Kenya and Brazil. Relatedly, interviewees working in the UAE noted that increasing the use of water misters indoors could extend the shelf-life of fresh produce, but increase water usage. Second, opportunities that help farmers and traders reduce post-harvest losses could also backfire. In Kenya, one opportunity for smallholders to reduce food loss and waste is to build collective storage facilities that are too costly for individual farmers to purchase alone. However, interviewees with expertise in reducing FLW noted that when produce is aggregated, ensuring consistent quality can be difficult—and sometimes even lead to more food waste. Third, interviewees highlighted that decreasing food waste could divert important food streams for those in need. For example, in Brazil interviewees pointed out that reducing food waste at the retail level could result in in fewer donations to food bank, thus reducing food security. Similarly, in Colombia interviewees highlighted a tradeoff between reducing food waste and shifts towards healthier diets, especially in cases of food donation (e.g., food banks) for vulnerable populations where ultra processed foods are more shelf stable.

Our interviewees identified four key tradeoffs between opportunities to shift towards healthier diets and other food system objectives. First, interviewees from all four countries noted that shifting diets could result in profound cultural losses. For example, in Brazil and Colombia interviewees noted that reducing beef consumption could negatively impact local cultures and livelihoods connected to livestock farming. In Colombia, interviewees also noted tensions between producing enough food, maintaining healthy diets, and safeguarding family traditions related to local food production. Second, interviewees across all four countries emphasized that healthier diets could come at the cost of food security or well-being if healthier foods are more expensive. Third, in some countries, the adoption of healthier dietary patterns could lead to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions associated with domestic food consumption. For example, shifts towards healthier diets in Kenya could mean increasing the consumptions of animal-sourced foods that tend to be higher than plant-based foods in their emissions intensity. Interviewees noted that diets that are higher in fruit and vegetable consumption may lead to more food loss and waste due to the high perishability of such products.