Crop diversification in rice-fallow lands can boost smallholder farmers’ income and soil health.

Rice-fallow areas are rainfed rice-growing regions where land remains uncultivated during post-rainy (winter) season. This practice persists due to the several challenges, including inadequate irrigation infrastructure, cultivation of the long-duration rice varieties that are harvested late (such as MTU 7029, BPT 5204, and traditional local varieties), and soil moisture imbalances at the time of crop establishment. Additionally, rapid soil moisture depletion caused by early withdrawal of monsoon coupled with disturbances from free-grazing livestock and blue bulls, further discourages winter cropping (Ali and Kumar, 2009).

In South Asia, approximately 22.3 million hectares of rice-fallow land are present, with India accounting for the largest share (88.3%), followed by Bangladesh (8.7%), Nepal (1.4%), Sri Lanka (1.1%), Pakistan (0.5%), and Bhutan (0.02%) (Kumar et al., 2020). In India, around 11.7 million hectares of rice-fallow land are primarily concentrated in the eastern region (82%), spanning the seven states—Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Assam, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and West Bengal (Kumar et al., 2018a,b). With growing demand for food due to population expansion, intensifying agricultural production in these areas is imperative (Kumar et al., 2016). These regions offer significant opportunities for expanding cultivated areas through targeted research and intervention (Kumar et al., 2020). However, cultivating a second crop in winter presents the multiple challenges, including biotic and abiotic stresses (NAAS, 2013). Addressing these constraints is essential for scientists, policymakers, and other stakeholders to fully utilize the untapped potential of rice-fallow lands in eastern India and similar regions globally.

In rainfed, rice-based monocropping systems, small and marginal farmers often struggle with limited resources, trapping them in a cycle of poverty. Integrating a second crop after rice harvesting in eastern India’s rice-fallow lands offers a viable solution to enhance agricultural productivity (NAAS, 2013). The selection of suitable rabi (winter) crops depends largely on their ability to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses (NAAS, 2013). Oilseeds such as safflower, mustard, toria, groundnut, sesame, and linseed, along with pulses like lathyrus, chickpea, and lentil, have been identified as promising options for improving system productivity of rice-fallow lands (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2021).

Recently, issue of rice-fallow lands has gained significant attention from the policymakers, leading to increased public investment. However, ad-hoc investments (temporary solutions without a long-term strategy) in intensification efforts often fail to yield sustainable outcomes due to complex, multidimensional challenges, including biotic and abiotic stresses, policy constraints, and socio-economic limitations. This article analyzes the challenges of rice-fallow lands and offers strategic recommendations to transform these underutilized areas into highly productive systems during winter and spring.

Additionally, this paper reviews the ongoing Central and State Government programmes related to rice-fallow management, emphasizing the need for research initiatives to align with these efforts for greater impact. The study’s findings will provide a valuable insights for policymakers and planners, for shaping the policies, designing effective programmes, and identifying priority areas for investment. Ultimately, this research aims to promote the sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural management practices, contributing to the poverty reduction and ensuring the food and nutritional security in the region.

The SWOT analysis of rice-fallow areas in India highlights the significant strengths such as vast land availability and potential for high yields in pulses and oilseeds. However, challenges like poor seed accessibility, lack of irrigation, and abiotic stress persist. Opportunities include innovative farmers and rising demand for pulses and oilseeds, while threats like production uncertainty and market volatility pose risks. The detail is given in Figure 1.

Eastern India experiences a hot and dry, sub-humid climate, characterized by scorching summers and relatively cooler winters. The annual average temperature ranges between 24–26°C, with summer temperatures (April to June) fluctuating between 29–32°C and peaking at 37–42°C in April and May. In winter (December to February), temperatures average around 16–18°C, with low reaching 8–10°C. The region receives annual rainfall between 1,200 and 1,500 mm, increasing up to 1,600 mm in eastern parts. The rainy season is marked by high humidity, excess water accumulation of 200–300 mm, and potential evapotranspiration (PET) between 1,400 and 1,700 mm (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2015). Crop cultivation typically begins with the onset of monsoon and lasts between 180–210 days, extending beyond 240 days in West Bengal. Soils in this region are generally shallow, poorly drained, and predominantly clayey to clay loam in texture.

The fallow lands offer an immense potential for cropping intensification through inclusion of short to medium-duration rice varieties, improved soil moisture conservation, and introduction of short-duration pulses and oilseeds, ultimately enhancing soil health and productivity (Kumar et al., 2019a).

Low water-requiring, short-duration pulses like chickpea, lentil, lathyrus, and black gram, along with oilseeds such as mustard, toria, linseed, groundnut, sesame, and safflower, present viable options for increasing smallholder farmers’ incomes while improving soil health. Rice-fallow areas are predominantly found in rainfed agro-ecosystems, characterized by deep alluvial soils with neutral to acidic pH (Figure 2).

In states such as Bihar, West Bengal, and Chhattisgarh, crops like chickpea, lentil, and lathyrus are typically grown as utera crops, sown in the standing rice fields 10–12 days before crop harvesting to utilize the residual soil moisture (Gupta and Bhowmick, 2005; Rautaray, 2008; Mondal and Ghosh, 2005). Several districts in eastern India follow rice–fallow cropping systems (Figure 3).

According to the Expert Group on Pulses, approximately 2.46 million hectares of rice–fallow land in these eastern states have a high potential for pulses cultivation (Figures 4, 5).

India cultivates rice on about 43.4 million hectares, producing 104.3 million tonnes, with an average yield of 2,404 kg per hectare (Anonymous, 2015). However, lower crop yields are often attributed to the water scarcity during the peak growth stages and challenges related to biotic and abiotic stress management. While rice yields are generally satisfactory under puddled conditions, around 30% of cultivated area remains fallow during subsequent winter due to various agronomic and socio-economic constraints. Rice-fallow areas can be classified into four sub-groups based on the soil type and agro-climatic conditions:

According to Bandyopadhyay et al. (2015), eastern region of India spans 73.7 million hectares, accounting for 22% of the nation’s total land area. The net cultivated area in this region is 33.6 million hectares, which constitutes approximately 45% of India’s total farmland. The region contributes 34.6% of country’s total food production. In eastern India, productivity of food crops is ranked as follows: West Bengal > Eastern Uttar Pradesh > Bihar > Assam > Odisha > Jharkhand > Chhattisgarh. Cropping intensity varies significantly across these states, ranging from 115% in Chhattisgarh to 177% in West Bengal. Despite housing 38% of India’s population, agricultural development in this region remains below its full potential.

The cultivation of pulses and oilseeds in rice-fallow areas faces the several challenges, including soil degradation and poor management practices (Pande et al., 2012). One of the major yield-limiting factors is soil moisture deficit, particularly during the later crop growth stages. Reliance on residual soil moisture from rice harvesting often results in inadequate moisture availability, leading to decline in water tables and mid-to-terminal droughts during flowering and pod-filling stages. These conditions significantly affect crop productivity of pulses and oilseeds in rice-fallow systems. Additionally, terminal drought and heat stress can cause premature maturation, reducing crop yields by 50% in tropical regions, particularly when rainfall is scarce (Ali et al., 2014).

Rice-fallow systems also suffer from poor soil structure, reduced aeration, and mechanical resistance in the seeding zones, negatively affecting seed germination, seedling emergence, and crop establishment (Kumar et al., 2020). Soil hardening, a major constraint in puddled rice fields, deteriorates the soil’s hydraulic properties, disrupting moisture distribution and thus, limiting the growth of deep-rooted pulses and oilseeds (Ali et al., 2014). These conditions weaken microbial activity, reduce the nutrient availability, and confine root growth to the top-soil, thus restricting the water and nutrient uptake. Additionally, combination of compact soil coupled with low levels of organic matter, which is common in tropical and sub-tropical areas, further depletes the soil fertility, rendering it unsuitable for profitable crop cultivation.

Physical deterioration of the puddled transplanted rice soils affects moisture retention, plant root penetration, and microbial life, leading to inefficient nutrient absorption in the subsequent crops. Two major approaches in rice-fallow production systems are-relay cropping and crop rotations, which have potential but face implementation challenges (Kumar et al., 2019b; Kumar et al., 2020). Pulses are particularly suitable for these systems due to their short duration, low input requirements, and adaptability to the surface broadcasting in standing rice fields. In coastal regions, urd and mung bean are commonly cultivated (Kumar et al., 2019b). However, relay cropping is often constrained by poor plant populations, inadequate seed-to-soil contact, seed rot, and patchy soil dryness, all of which reduce the seed germination, plant density, and crop yield potential.

Weed management in standing rice fields remains a major issue, even after harvest, due to inadequate land preparation. Problematic weeds such as Cuscuta can severely impact pulse crops (Mishra et al., 2016). In contrast, crop rotations require ploughing immediately after rice harvesting to remove stubbles, delay sowing of winter pulses. This leads to formation of large soil clods that hinders the seed germination and accelerate moisture evaporation from the top soil, causing water stress during critical growth stages of pulses such as chickpea, lentil, and black gram.

Soil acidity in Eastern India and Northeastern Hill (NEH) region, along with alkalinity or salinity in the lower and middle Indo-Gangetic Plains, further diminishes soil productivity (Kumar et al., 2019b). The anaerobic conditions created by puddled rice fields are detrimental to beneficial soil microbes like Rhizobia, impairing biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in leguminous crops. Additionally, pulses and oilseeds in rice-fallow systems are vulnerable to high incidences of insect pests due to unstable soil–plant-atmosphere interactions. Chickpea crops in states such as Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh are particularly susceptible to pod borer (Helicoverpa spp.), while root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are also prevalent. Urd and mung bean often suffer from powdery mildew during winter, while lentil are affected by rust and Fusarium wilt.

Limited employment opportunities in agriculture contribute to widespread poverty and malnutrition in these regions. The per capita availability of cultivated land in our country is just 0.15 ha (Kumar et al., 2016). Farming in these areas is dominated by the small and marginal landholding, which complicates the adoption of mechanized farming techniques.

Although this region receives 1,100 to 1,200 mm of annual rainfall—which is sufficient to meet the crop water demands but high variability in spatial and temporal rainfall distribution causes farming instability. By the end of winter, these soils dry and crack, making it difficult to sustain a second crop. Additionally, post-harvest plowing results in large, hard clods, further restricting seed germination and root penetration, ultimately reducing yields (Kumar et al., 2020).

Resource-poor farmers face additional challenges due to the high costs of irrigation and fertilizers needed for growing winter crops, further discouraging the second cropping. Pulses and oilseeds can effectively utilize the residual soil moisture, but optimal moisture management strategies and research-driven solutions are essential for maximizing their productivity.

Rice, the primary crop, is typically cultivated through transplantation during rainy season. To facilitate its growth, farmers practice puddling, a method that disrupts the soil macro-pores and aggregates, increasing bulk density. After the rainy season, these puddled soils dry and crack, restricting the moisture availability for winter crops. Furthermore, ploughing after rice harvesting creates large, hard soil clods, impeding the root growth and leading to reduced yields in subsequent crops. Resource-limited farmers often struggle with high cost of irrigation and fertilizers required for winter cropping, further constraining their ability to sustain agricultural production throughout year.

Pulses and oilseeds can effectively utilize the residual soil moisture left after rice harvesting, making efficient moisture management critical for establishing a second crop. By implementing well-researched strategies, fallow lands can be converted into productive agricultural areas. In states like West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, conventional rice-pulse cropping systems are commonly practiced. However, challenges such as poor crop establishment of pulses like chickpea and oilseeds like mustard, toria, and safflower significantly reduce the region’s yield potential. Kumar et al. (2016) identified key limitations affecting plant populations in rice-fallow systems, including inadequate seed-soil contact, low soil moisture, and severe weed infestations.

In lowland rice areas with higher soil moisture levels, lentil and lathyrus are better suited for cultivation than chickpea, mustard, and linseed (Mishra et al., 2016; Mishra and Kumar, 2018). The productivity of pulses and oilseeds in rice-fallow lands is further affected by site-specific nutrient deficiencies, particularly phosphorus, zinc, sulfur, boron, and molybdenum, as well as soil acidity and low organic carbon levels. Addressing these constraints is essential for achieving the optimal yields in rice-fallow cropping system.

Farmers in rice-fallow areas also face challenges due to the dominance of long-duration rice varieties, which take 155 to 160 days to mature (e.g., MTU 7029, BPT 5204, and local traditional cultivars). The extended growing period delays the sowing of subsequent crops, such as pulses and oilseeds, resulting in reduced crop yields due to soil moisture deficits during flowering and maturation stages. Additionally, lack of high-quality seeds and superior crop varieties exacerbates these challenges. Weed infestations pose another major issue, particularly in utera/paira cropping systems, where rapid surface soil moisture loss complicates manual weeding, further affecting crop establishment and productivity. Utera cropping (also known as paira cropping) is a traditional relay cropping system in which next crop is sown in standing rice crop before its harvest, utilizing the residual soil moisture for germination and early growth. This practice is commonly used in rainfed, lowland rice-growing areas to optimize the land use, reduce fallow periods, and enhance productivity without additional irrigation. Common utera crops include lentil, chickpea, linseed, lathyrus, and mustard, which are well-suited to the residual soil moisture conditions in rice fields.

Rainfed regions in India plays a vital role in food production and rural economy but are often fragile and prone to distress. Approximately 11.65 million hectares of land remain uncultivated after rice harvesting, with 82% of this area located in eastern India, while remaining portion is distributed across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. These regions offer significant opportunities for growing upland pulses such as lentil, chickpea, lathyrus, mung and urd bean, which require minimal inputs and water (Figure 6). However, depleted soil moisture post-harvest can delay sowing and reduce crop yields. Limited moisture further affects plant growth, making supplementary irrigation essential during critical growth stages.

Conservation agriculture practices including crop residue retention, zero tillage (ZT), and appropriate crop rotation show great potential for improving pulse yields in rice-fallow areas. Both crop rotation and relay/paira cropping of pulses in standing rice fields could become widely adopted solutions. However, a thorough understanding of local ecology and constraints is necessary to address the challenges effectively. Techniques such as using suitable pulse varieties, zero tillage, retaining crop residues, seed priming, foliar nutrition, and mulching can significantly enhance pulse productivity.

Pulses and oilseeds have several advantages, including short growth cycles, climate resilience, and low input requirements, making efficient use of residual soil moisture. Despite India producing around 17–18 million tonnes of pulses annually on an area of 24–26 million hectares, demand still exceeds supply, necessitating imports. Integrating pulses into rice-fallow systems can help bridge this gap, enhance sustainability, and improve farmers’ incomes by expanding cultivation areas and boosting crop productivity.

The development and implementation of the research and development (R&D) programs, supported by government schemes and interventions, have significantly advanced the utilization of rice-fallow lands for pulse and oilseed cultivation. In India, nearly one-third of agricultural land remains fallow after paddy harvesting, representing a substantial opportunity for conversion into productive farmland. With appropriate policy measures, an additional 3.0 million hectares could be brought under the pulse cultivation and 1.0 million hectares under oilseed production. The promotion of crops such as lentil, lathyrus, and chickpea in rice-fallow areas, supported by initiatives like the National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has shown the positive results.

However, the impact of such programs on pulses and oilseeds cultivation has been limited due to restricted implementation areas and frequent changes in beneficiaries.

To overcome these challenges, more innovative and targeted strategies are required to enhance the effectiveness of rice-based cropping systems. This involves focusing on region-specific characteristics to optimize the utilization of fallow lands and benefit resource-poor farmers. Despite the potential of short-duration pulse and oilseed crops, efforts to expand their cultivation have been insufficient. All India Coordinated Research Project on mung bean, Lathyrus, Lentil, Rajmash, and Pea (AICRP-MuLLaRP) has not effectively promoted high-yielding varieties in the region. However, projects funded by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and National Fund for Basic, Strategic, and Frontier Application Research in Agriculture (NFBSRA) have made progress in mitigating abiotic stress and improving resource efficiency in pulse production.

Consortium Research Platform on Conservation Agriculture (CRP on CA), established by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), has identified soil and water management as critical factors limiting crop production in fallow areas. A comprehensive approach to soil and crop management is an essential to unlock the potential of rice-fallow lands for short-duration crops.

As highlighted by Mohapatra et al. (2022), efficient natural resource management and integrated crop management (ICM) practices are crucial for sustainable cropping intensification in rice-fallow systems. Addressing the multifaceted challenges of rice-fallow management requires coordinated efforts across research, policy development, infrastructure improvement, and community engagement. Programs like “Targeting Rice-Fallow Areas in Eastern India for the Promotion and Production of Pulses & Oilseeds” under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), along with advocacy by Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), are steps in the right direction. However, tackling the complexities of fallow land intensification requires the precise assessments, identification of the constraints, and development of tailored crop plans to enhance the farm incomes, reduce poverty, and ensure the food security.

To enhance pulses and oilseeds cultivation in rice-fallow areas, several key interventions are necessary. A cluster-based approach for demonstrating improved production technologies, along with increasing the availability of quality seeds, is a crucial. Seed priming, along with Rhizobium or fungicide treatments, can enhance seed performance. Effective agronomic measures such as micronutrient application, pest management, and supplemental irrigation further improve productivity. Resource conservation technologies (RCTs) help conserve soil moisture and increase farm efficiency. Additionally, increasing cropping intensity can alleviate winter fodder shortages. Simple interventions such as seed priming and applying urea/DAP and micronutrients at critical growth stages have significantly improved crop yields for resource-poor farmers (Kumar et al., 2018a,b). Implementing these strategies can foster the sustainable and profitable pulse and oilseed farming while addressing the agronomic challenges. The following integrated strategies can significantly boost the system productivity of rice-fallow areas in India.

The effective utilization of rice-fallow lands presents a promising avenue for enhancing agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods. Future research should focus on developing the climate-resilient and short-duration pulses and oilseeds varieties that can thrive well under the residual soil moisture conditions. Emphasis should be placed on improving seed distribution systems, ensuring timely availability of high-quality seeds, and adopting precision agronomic management practices to optimize the crop establishment in these fallow lands. Expanding irrigation infrastructure and promoting efficient water management strategies will be crucial for enhancing the crop yields in these areas. Research should also explore sustainable cropping systems tailored to specific agroecological zones, incorporating conservation agriculture management practices to improve the soil health and long-term crop productivity. Integrating pulses into public food distribution programs and farmer support initiatives can incentivize their cultivation and contribute to the nutritional security.

Additionally, policy-driven interventions must be informed by data-driven research on economic viability, market linkages, and farmer adoption behavior. Strengthening extension services, digital advisory tools, and financial incentives for farmers transitioning to pulse cultivation will be vital for scaling up this transformation. By addressing these key challenges, rice-fallow areas can be effectively utilized to improve the overall farm incomes, enhance food security, and contribute to a more sustainable agricultural landscape.

Despite the identification of numerous technological, institutional, and market-based solutions, integration of evidence-based strategies in designing and implementing fallow land intensification pathways remains limited. Rice-fallow intensification, particularly in risk-prone areas, lacks a cohesive support systems, an active community of practice, and a well-established policy network at various levels, which hampers effective policy reforms.

Research on fallow land management must align with ongoing government schemes and adopt a collaborative approach, involving the multiple partners to assess the investment pathways and sequence interventions for effective winter fallow intensification. Coordination among various stakeholders-including agriculture, water resources, electricity, and public works departments-is essential for successful irrigation management and overall governance.

Rice-fallow systems present the significant opportunities for expanding pulses and oilseeds cultivation through advanced agro-technologies. Key strategies for success includes the soil moisture conservation and mitigating abiotic stress. Focused research is crucial to understand rice-fallow ecology and developing location-specific, short-duration, drought-tolerant cultivars. By addressing site-specific constraints and implementing well-planned cropping strategies, these unutilized lands can be transformed into productive agricultural areas, contributing to poverty reduction and improved nutrition.