The World Health Organization's definition of fruits is more consistent and unified than its definition of vegetables when considering the plant origin, fleshy portion around seeds, sweet flavor, use as a snack or dessert, and typical consumption in a raw state (Keller and Tukuitonga, 2005). Certain microorganisms in agricultural settings can pose risks if proper precautions are not taken. Some contributing factors include: use of untreated human or animal waste as fertilizer, Contamination from bird droppings in growing fields, Poor personal hygiene practices by agricultural workers, contaminated irrigation or processing water sources, Use of unclean harvesting equipment, containers, or storage facilities. Fortunately, thoroughly washing produce in clean, safe water before consumption can help remove any potentially harmful microbes on the surface. This simple step can significantly reduce the risks associated with these microbial contaminants in the food supply (World Health Organization, 2012).

Worldwide, intestinal bacterial and parasite illnesses are common and pose a risk to public health. Living in poverty, having contaminated water, living in cramped quarters, and lacking in sanitation and hygiene are all strongly associated with infections with bacteria and medically significant parasites (intestinal helminths, protozoa). Consuming tainted, raw, or improperly cleaned fruits and vegetables can lead to human contraction of parasites (Adeyeba and Akinbo, 2002). When contamination occurs due to various interconnected issues during planting, harvesting, transportation, display, and mishandling at home, fruits and vegetables can become sources of parasite transmission (Omowaye and Audu, 2012).

Some parasites can exclusively spread through food, such as trematodes carried by fish. Others that enter the food chain through water or soil and can contaminate fresh produce include Ascaris lumbricoides, Cryptosporidium spp., Entamoeba histolytica, Enterobius vermicularis, Fasciola spp., Giardia intestinalis, Hookworm spp., Hymenolepis spp., Taenia spp., Trichuris trichiura, and ToxoCara spp (Idahosa, 2011).

Enterohaemorrhagic, Campylobacter, and Salmonella are the most frequently occurring bacterial species that cause contamination in fruit and food. Foodborne infections such as Escherichia coli can cause serious and often fatal consequences, affecting millions of people every year. Frequent symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, headaches, fever, and stomach pain. Products derived from animals, such as eggs and poultry, can harbor salmonellosis. Drinking water, raw or undercooked poultry, and raw milk are the main sources of campylobacter. Fresh produce, undercooked meat, and unpasteurized milk are known to have enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli. Listeria and Vibrio cholera are two more types of bacterial species that may be the source of illness. Listeria can grow at refrigerator temperatures and is present in unpasteurized dairy products and other ready-to-eat foods, while Vibrio cholera is spread by contaminated water or food (Balali et al., 2020; Mostafidi et al., 2020).

Every bite we consume carries the potential risk of contracting a disease due to microbial contamination. Safer food practices quite literally save lives. To address this, we must build an adequate physical infrastructure for food storage. This includes proper temperature control, humidity regulation, and pest management to prevent spoilage and contamination. Design regulatory standards for food storage areas. These standards should cover cleanliness, sanitation, and worker hygiene protocols to ensure food safety. Use clean, safe water to wash and process fruits, vegetables, and other produce before they are ready for consumption or further processing. This helps remove harmful microbes. Follow good food production and handling procedures. This includes the appropriate and responsible use of agricultural chemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers, to minimize the risk of contamination. Implementing these measures helps reduce the possibility of fruits, vegetables, and other food items becoming contaminated with harmful microbes. Prioritizing food safety at every step of the supply chain is critical for protecting public health.

Every year, millions of people get sick and millions of people die from eating contaminated food, putting billions of people at risk. In wealthier societies, there has been a sharp rise in food safety concerns. But the underdeveloped world is where the true tragedy of foodborne illnesses is being experienced. Human illness is mostly caused by intestinal parasites, which account for a considerable amount of morbidity and mortality. 350 million individuals are sick from these illnesses, out of an estimated 3.5 billion afflicted people, most of them are children (Bekele et al., 2017; Akoachere et al., 2018).

The WHO Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG) produced the report, which demonstrated the WHO Initiative to Estimate the Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases. It offers the first estimates of the incidence, mortality, and disease burden of foodborne diseases worldwide in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). Thirty-one foodborne risks that cause 32 diseases are included in the worldwide estimates. These include 11 agents of diarrheal disease (one virus, seven bacteria, and three protozoa), 7 agents of invasive infectious disease (one virus, five bacteria, and one protozoon), 10 helminths, and 3 chemicals (Idahosa, 2011).

In 2010, there were 420,000 (95% UI 310,000–600,000) deaths and 600 (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 420–960) million foodborne illnesses as a result of the 31 global risks combined. In 2010, the 31 hazards that cause foodborne illness accounted for 33 (95% UI 25–46) million DALYs worldwide; children under the age of five accounted for 40% of the foodborne illness burden. Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) and NTS in particular were found to be the primary causes of foodborne diarrhea illness, accounting for 18 (95% UI 12–25) million DALYs globally.

Fishella typhimurium and Taenia solium were two more foodborne pathogens that significantly increased the worldwide burden. People of all ages are susceptible to foodborne illnesses, but those under five and those residing in low-income areas of the world are more at risk than the general population (World Health Organization, 2015; dos Santos Correia, 2018).

The annual incidence of foodborne illness in the United States is estimated to be 48 million cases, with an associated economic impact ranging from $51.0 to 77.7 billion (World Health Organization, 2015). Foodborne illness incidence is estimated to be between 3.1 and 5.0 million cases per year in Canada and 5.4 million cases per year, costing $1.2 billion, in Australia (Soulsby, 1982).

Foodborne or waterborne microbial pathogens are the main causes of illness in developing nations, with an estimated 1.9 million deaths worldwide each year. However, these diseases do not just affect developing nations; they also affect developed nations, with an estimated 1/3 of the population suffering from microbiological foodborne illnesses annually (Newman et al., 2015; Keerthirathne et al., 2016).

Many instances of a foodborne illness associated with fresh fruit and vegetable consumption have surfaced recently, particularly in poor nations. Numerous countries across the world have reported on issues related to infections in fresh produce, along with the resulting consequences for public health and trade (Andargie et al., 2008). The primary cause of these foodborne illnesses, which have a major negative impact on health and the economy, is the parasites Helminthes and Protozoan (Nyarango et al., 2008).

These estimates of loads are conservative; additional research is required to fill up all the gaps in the field. Apart from offering worldwide and local approximations, the Initiative aimed to encourage national initiatives. It is evident that foodborne illness has a significant worldwide impact on people of all ages. By incorporating these estimates into the development of national and regional policies, all stakeholders may help to improve food safety across the food chain. This included promoting the use of burden data in the formulation of evidence-based policy and developing capacity through national foodborne disease burden studies.

Fruits are an important part of a healthy diet, providing essential vitamins, minerals, and other beneficial nutrients. However, fruits can also serve as vehicles for the transmission of harmful bacteria and parasites, posing a significant public health risk, especially in areas with poor sanitation and food safety practices. In developing countries like Ethiopia, local markets are important sources of fresh produce for many consumers, but these markets may lack adequate infrastructure and oversight to ensure the safety of the food sold.

Contaminated fruits can harbor a variety of pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Listeria, as well as parasites like Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Consumption of these contaminated fruits can lead to foodborne illnesses, which can have serious health consequences, especially for vulnerable populations like young children, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. While food safety issues are a concern in many parts of the world, there is limited research on the extent of bacterial and parasitic contamination of fruits sold in local markets in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This study would help fill this knowledge gap and provide valuable insights into the food safety situation in the region. Understanding the level of contamination in these markets can inform targeted interventions to improve food safety and protect public health.

The findings of this study can be used to raise awareness among consumers, policymakers, and market authorities about the importance of food safety. This information can then be used to develop and implement effective strategies to improve the handling, storage, and sale of fruits in local markets, ultimately reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses and improving public health outcomes.

Improving food safety is a priority for the Ethiopian government, as well as global organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). This study would contribute to the ongoing efforts to address food safety challenges and align with national and international development goals.

Fruits can serve as a hospitable environment for a range of microorganisms, including bacteria and parasites, allowing them to thrive and propagate. Fruits may become contaminated at various stages of the supply chain, such as during production, harvesting, transportation, preparation, or processing. This contamination can ultimately lead to health issues in humans. Similarly, vegetables are also susceptible to contamination by common pollutants, including bacteria and parasites (Park et al., 2013).

The study found that mango had the highest amount of contamination, with mean values of 3.1 × 105 (TCC), 4.1 × 104 (TFC), and 3.5 × 105 (TAMC). The results of this study are comparatively greater than those of a similar study carried out in Hossana town, Southern Ethiopia, which found that the total coliform count was 4.8 x 103 and the average aerobic mesophilic bacterial counts (CFU/ml) of mangos were 1.3 x 104 (Abisso et al., 2018). However, this study was found to be lower than a study done in Gondar (1.1 × 1010TAMC, and 4.9 × 104 CFU/ml TCC)from mango (Gultie and Sahile, 2013), from retail outlets in Qatar (1.3 × 105 CFU/ml TAMC) (Al-Jedah and Robinson, 2002). This may be due to many factors such as seasonal variation, time of sample collection, hygiene of the environment, handling practices, and incubation time.

Avocado had the lowest mean value of bacterial contamination, measuring 2.5 × 104 (TAMC), 1.5 × 103 (TCC), and 1.8 × 103 (TFC), respectively. This result is consistent with a study using fresh fruit juices in Hossana town, Southern Ethiopia, which found that avocados had an average aerobic mesophilic bacterial count of 2.4 × 104 CFU/ml (TAMC), which was higher than the total coliform count of 2.6 × 104 CFU/ml. Conversely, this outcome was less than that of a Gondar investigation on fruit in town marketplaces (8.9 × 109 CFU/ml TAMC), 1.1 × 104 CFU/ml TCC) (Gultie and Sahile, 2013), from Shewarobit town, Amhara, Ethiopia, about 2.2 × 105 CFU/ml TAMC was reported (Fufa and Liben, 2018), in Hawassa, Ethiopia 2.8 × 105 CFU/ml (Eromo et al., 2016), from retail outlets in Qatar 4.9 × 106 CFU/ml TAMC, 9.3 × 103 CFU/ml TCC (Al-Jedah and Robinson, 2002). This difference may be due to handling practice of fruits and general hygienic condition of the environment where fruits were displayed for sell in the marketplace.

In this investigation, the bacterial contamination level of banana fruit was determined to be 2.0 × 103 fecal coliform, 3.4 × 102 CFU/ml TCC, and 2.1 × 105 CFU/ml TAMC. This study is consistent with one conducted in Pakistan's Karachi metropolis. 2.8 × 103 fecal coliform, 3.2 × 102 CFU/ml TCC, and 2.5 × 105 CFU/ml TAMC (Alamgir et al., 2015). However, this finding is lower than from a similar study conducted in north-west Ethiopia, which shows 2.5 × 1, 010 CFU/ml of TAMC and 6.6 × 103 CFU/ml of TCC (Gultie and Sahile, 2013), from Hawassa town of southern Ethiopia, 1.82 × 107 of CFU/mlTAMC and 1.17 × 107 CFU/ml of TCC respectively (Dobo, 2019), from retail outlets in Qatar 2.2 × 106 CFU/ml of TAMC and 3.2 × 103 CFU/ml TCC (Al-Jedah and Robinson, 2002). On the other hand, this study is relatively higher than a study done from the Main markets of Multan, Pakistan, 1.5 × 104 CFU/ml TAMC (Rida and Deeba, 2018). This may be due to seasonal differences and the capacity of their laboratory setup to carryout difference analysis methods to detect microorganisms.

The total aerobic mesophilic bacteria in papaya were determined to be 1.3 × 104 CFU/ml of TFC, 2.3 × 103 CFU/ml of TCC, and 7.5 × 103 CFU/ml in this investigation. This study yielded lower results than one from Hossana town in southern Ethiopia, which found 2.8 × 104 CFU/ml of aerobic mesophilic bacteria overall (Abisso et al., 2018), from Arba Minch town, Ethiopia (1.9 × 106 CFU/mlTAMC) and (2.09 × 105 CFU/ml TCC) (Wedajo and Kadire, 2019), from Shewarobit town, Amhara, Ethiopia (1.9 × 105 CFU/mlTAMC), and (1.7 × 105 CFU/ml TCC) (Fufa and Liben, 2018).

In the four markets of Addis Ketema Sub-City, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, a total of 8 (6.7%) cases of E. coli bacterial contamination were found. A total of 2 (1.7%), 3 (2.5%), 1 (0.8%), and 2 (1.7%) E. coli were found in avocado, papaya, mango, and banana, in that order. This study's findings were found to be consistent with research conducted in Debre-Markos Town, North Western Ethiopia, which revealed that ~3 (7.5%) and 1 (2.5%) E. coli were found in fresh avocado and mango fruits, respectively (Geta et al., 2018), from a study carried out in Karachi city, Pakistan 1 E. coli was detected from banana fruits (Alamgir et al., 2015). However, this study was lower than from a study conducted on street foods in Hawassa, Ethiopia, that reported 5 (23.8%) E. coli bacteria from fresh avocado fruit (Eromo et al., 2016), According to additional research, there were 7 (33.3%) E. coli-positive samples from avocado juice at Addis Ababa's fruit juice shops. However, compared to a similar study conducted in fresh fruit juice shops in Addis Ababa, where 2 (9.5%) E. coli positive samples from mangos were found, this study's result is greater (Kechero et al., 2019).

Similarly, from the chosen fruit samples, 16 (or 13.3%) S. aurues bacterial contamination was recovered. In this study, 4 (3.3%), as the following table illustrates. Bacteria belonging to the Staphylococcus aureus species were found in bananas, mangoes, avocados, and 3 (2.5%), 5 (5.0%), and 3 (2.5%), respectively. This result was less than that of a study conducted in Gondar, North Western Ethiopia, which found that 10 (62.5%), 13 (81.25%), and 7 (43.75%) of the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria were found in avocado, mango, and banana fruits, respectively (Gultie and Sahile, 2013), from Debre-Markos Town, North Western Ethiopia5 (12.5%) of Staphylococcus aureus were found from avocado juice (Geta et al., 2018). This study, however, is comparatively more extensive than one that looked at freshly squeezed fruit sold on the street in Karachi, Pakistan, and found that one Staphylococcus aureus was found in banana and mango juice (Alamgir et al., 2015), from avocado juice in Hawassa, Ethiopia, 2 (28.6) (Eromo et al., 2016), from banana, mango, papaya and avocado in Hossana Town, Southern Ethiopia, 1 Staphylococcus aureus was found in each fruit (Abisso et al., 2018) 74 (61.7%) of the respondents reported washing fruits and vegetables ahead of selling was not practiced. To keep fruits in the market free from infection, hygienic conditions must be effectively enhanced. The findings demonstrated that, instead of utilizing refrigeration, all respondents (100%) increased the shelf life of unsold fruits and vegetables by moistening them with water. The spread of harmful germs is aided by consumers and merchants handling food in contaminated markets and by misting fruits and vegetables with tainted water (Beuchat, 1996). Moistening fruits and vegetables with contaminated water and handling of produce by infected vendors and consumers in the marketplace promote the spread of pathogenic microorganisms (Beuchat, 1996). Unhygienic surroundings, improper waste disposal system, and inadequate water supply attract houseflies or fruit flies, probably further increasing food contamination (Chumber et al., 2007). Contaminated hands of vendors and perhaps lack of knowledge of hygienic practices and safety of food products are the main contributing factors of contamination (Fang et al., 2003). Animal excrement, including that of humans and donkeys, was also seen in close proximity to the exhibition locations. Fly swarms were also a regular sight. According to the observation, every store weighed various fruits using a single, shared balance, which could lead to cross-contamination. They did not follow personal hygiene rules and did not follow hygienic measures. It was discovered that the fruit and vegetable display area was unhygienic (Tefera et al., 2014; Alemu et al., 2018; Sahile and Legesse, 2019).

The findings of this study suggest that to reduce the growth or survival of pathogenic bacteria, fruits must be handled with care and using hygienic practices, and processed using effective methods. The development of fruit preservation techniques has been driven by the goal of extending shelf life.

Overall, the study indicates that these fruit juices are not produced with adequate hygiene, and consumers face a risk of contracting foodborne illnesses. Government health agencies should take steps to enact regulations that properly govern street food vending and educate vendors about food safety and hygiene standards. Further research is warranted to investigate other fruit varieties from various juice shops and sellers, as well as to identify additional viruses. Additionally, it is advisable to utilize processing technology to prepare pasteurized juices, in order to prevent food-related contamination.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

DM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing – original draft. KD: Investigation, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.