Sustainable development goals (SDGs) require global society to be committed to eradicating poverty, ending hunger, and taking urgent action to cope with climate change and its effects by 2030 (Tadesse and Ahmed, 2023). On the other hand, agriculture is the most critical factor determining the achievement of these goals (Fentie and Beyene, 2019). It is, however, one of the most susceptible sectors to the effects of climate change due to its inherent risks and uncertainties (Pacillo et al., 2022). These risks have mostly a climatic component, and they are all influenced in some way by climate change in severity, range, or frequency (Gebru et al., 2020). Climate change can pose risks to farming and livelihood, so it is imperative to adopt measures to alleviate the risks and grasp the opportunities (Partey et al., 2018). In this regard, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has been presented as a new paradigm for adapting agriculture to climate change (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2020). CSA is a strategy to manage agriculture in the face of climate change, which can increase farmers’ productivity, adaptability, and resilience against climate change (Fentie and Beyene, 2019; Tavassoti et al., 2021). This approach tries to minimize the losses caused by climate change (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2020).

When facing a climatic crisis, it is necessary to ask what role the youth and teenagers’ education plays in improving adaptation to climate change (Kumar et al., 2023). Since agriculture is a jumping stage of all advanced economies toward sustainable development (Coulibaly et al., 2021), smart climate-consistent planning in the agricultural education sector is crucial, and national economic and food security will incur irreparable losses if ignored. Therefore, it is suitable to provide adolescents and youth with education to initiate implementing environmental protection programs (Agus and Ali, 2022). In this respect, agricultural vocational schools are vital in fostering creative, determined, and innovative human resources for coping with and adapting to climate change (Jomegi and Lashgarara, 2013).

A priority for CSA development in Iran is to develop a CSA-based curriculum for the textbooks of the agricultural education system, especially agricultural vocational schools (Belay et al., 2022). Textbooks are designed to convey knowledge and certain ideas to students and to transfer what is perceived as important by older generations (Gokmenoglu et al., 2023). According to scholars, curricula are the heart of any educational system, so the efficiency of any educational system depends on the efficiency of curricula (Simanjuntak et al., 2022). Curricula focus on students’ perception of society and their beliefs regarding their importance to teachers (Morote et al., 2020). They bring order to classes and help students be more organized when engaging in school activities (Campbell-Phillips, 2020).

Curriculum management plays an essential role in the development of the content taught by the teacher and learned by the students, so curriculum can be a catalyst for change (Wahyudi et al., 2020). Evidence shows that the educational system has considered CSA inadequately, and there are some barriers. Karmi et al. (2019) argue that in the context of climate change, public efforts in all disciplines are required to cope with and adapt to this phenomenon. On the other hand, most activities in this regard have concentrated on hardware and technology with much less attention to the software and learning to protect the Earth. Berhanu et al. (2024) revealed that educational programs and farm visits positively influenced CSA-adopting smallholders’ resilience. Jomegi et al. (2023) argue that there is a positive relationship between climate-smart practices and such factors as farmers’ knowledge and skill. Chauhan et al. (2022) found that CSA must be included in curricula as an integrated approach to achieving agriculture sustainability. Chetti et al. (2022) explain that the Indian government has launched various programs for the sustainable development of agriculture, one of which is to promote skills among agriculture graduates through ICT and the introduction of CSA at schools. Ahmed et al. (2022) report that since agriculture is mostly rain-fed in Nigeria, a CSA-based curriculum must be developed for the youth who will guide agricultural activities in the near future. Handayani (2021) argues that the understanding of climate change dynamism is critical for supporting farmers’ adaptation to future conditions. Nonetheless, students and graduates do not understand the concept and application of climate change in light of the dynamism of food production and future food security, whereas agriculture is faced with the challenge of climate change adaptation. According to Koirala and Bhandari (2020), the adoption and use of CSA technologies can be accelerated by establishing a link among animal farmers, researchers, and agricultural extension and education experts. Also, it should be ensured that CSA activities are implemented with a decentralized perspective on curricula.

The problems of educational systems, especially agricultural vocational schools, originate from the lack of information available to planners on optimal standards for agriculture education. Also, the insufficiencies and bottlenecks of agricultural vocational schools in training skillful human resources are rooted in how they offer practical and skill courses. A review of the history of this education in Iran shows the weaknesses in the scientific and practical bodies of education in agricultural vocational schools, especially in curriculum and inattention to CSA. This issue can be solved if agricultural vocational schools pursue a modern orientation in curricula (Pormoid and Yazdakhasi, 2021). To solve this problem, agricultural vocational schools must follow a new orientation in their curricula. The central theme of this research is the educational requirements of agricultural vocational schools across Iran in terms of the curriculum and attention to planning for CSA so educational planners can reinforce agricultural training in this field (Waaswa et al., 2021). Also, research in Iran shows that no proper research has addressed climate change education in the educational system so far (Taghibaygi and Khosravipour, 2020), and there are problems in the scientific and practical body of education in agricultural vocational schools. On the other hand, the development of CSA-based curricula has yet to be investigated in Iran. Hence, the education of climate change and the development of a curriculum for CSA as a branch of environmental education has been neglected and overlooked in Iran, although it has been a challenge in recent years. Thus, the research gap in this domain is quite evident. Therefore, this is the first study in Iran that deals with the challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational schools, and it is expected to speed up the adoption of CSA first by trainers and trainees and then by farmers (Waaswa et al., 2021). In this concern, revising and updating curricula and solving their challenges as per the issue of climate change, diverse developments and innovations in the context of information sharing, economic developments, knowledge-based economy, more attention to experts, and social developments can help curricula to orient with meeting the needs of society.

Seemingly, CSA-based curricula are implemented in Iran’s agricultural vocational schools more slowly than in other parts of the world. However, research in this respect has been limited, and this limited research has still focused on the results of the programs in the short run, whereas vast developments have happened at the school level in various parts of the world (Moradi and Didehban, 2017). Accordingly, having an up-to-date curriculum with a systematic and climate change-consistent approach is inevitable for the educational system at agricultural vocational schools. The application of the paradigm proposed in this research can be effective in implementing CSA-based curricula at agricultural vocational schools.

Considering the problems and challenges of designing and implementing curricula in agricultural vocational schools, this institution obviously needs its challenges and obstacles identified and solved more than ever. In this regard, the present research aimed to analyze the challenges of formulating and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational schools. Since the theoretical basis is poor in this regard, but the issue is of crucial significance, we tried to explore the issues, problems, and bottlenecks of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural vocational schools scientifically and closely in order to propose key solutions and strategies, thereby leaping toward designing such curriculum for these schools in Iran.

The research was an applied study in goal and an explorative study in research approach, and a quantitative study in research type, which used grounded theory as its method. Data were collected by interview. The document method was used to develop the theoretical framework, and a field survey was adopted to detect the challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum for Iran’s agricultural vocational schools. Data were collected by both the library and field methods. So, after the literature on curricula and CSA including the textbooks of 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, such as basic technical knowledge of horticulture, basic technical knowledge of animal farming, basic technical knowledge of crop farming, basic technical knowledge of agricultural machinery, the application of modern technologies, technical and professional knowledge of cropping, and crop cultivation was reviewed, the main challenges and deterrents were derived and used to compile the initial questionnaire. Thus, the research tried to answer the question with a qualitative approach. The research was based on the systematic grounded theory methodology. The sampling was non-random. The data analyst decided to select the next sample during theory formation as long as the theory was finalized. In grounded theory, the sample size is not known in advance, and sampling continues during data analysis until the theory reaches theoretical saturation (Corbin and Strauss, 2012). The statistical population comprised researchers, authors, managers, and experts at the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and Planning and at the Research Center of Educational Studies. The sample was taken using the snowball technique purposively, and sampling continued until theoretical saturation for which 16 experts were selected.

The statistical population was selected according to Jomegi et al. (2023) procedure. According to them, the theory in a qualitative study is valid if the researcher has reached the saturation point. To achieve this point, the field study must continue until no new evidence is obtained from the data. In other words, the data has wholly been revised. The theoretical saturation point reflects the validity of the grounded theory method because the theoretical saturation point deals with data replication. This replication and its results in methodology show the reliability of the research method. It was tried to ensure data validity by integrating data collection methods (personal interview and observation), combining data sources (researchers, authors, managers, and experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation), and maximizing sample diversity (in terms of interviews with people at different levels including researchers, authors, managers, and experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation). The researchers did not involve their assumptions during data collection, analysis, and interpretation as much as possible. To take care of data transferability, the researchers who had participated in interviews and noted all questions and answers revised the findings. The participants were asked about the challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural vocational schools, which are reported in detail in the Results section. Validity in qualitative research comprises internal validity and external validity. The interval validity (consistency of the research findings with reality) was measured using the remarks and recommendations of the supervisors and advisers, researchers, long-term observations, engagement of participants in all research steps, and the formulation of research biases. The external validity (applicability or generalizability of the research findings to other situations) was also measured by an in-depth description of data collected through the interviews. The coding reliability was determined by triangulation through data consensus (using different sources from different groups at different times), researchers consensus (revising the findings by using the opinions of several researchers), and consensus of methods (using severing methods, such as observation, interview, documents, and questionnaire). Data were analyzed concurrently with data collection through three steps open coding, axial coding, and selective coding, for which MAXQDA₁₂ was used.

This research conducted deep interviews with 16 researchers, authors, managers, and experts at the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and Planning and the Research Center of Educational Studies. The research ethics requires that we maintain their anonymity.

The results of the demographic characteristics revealed that 15.4% of the participants had career experience of <5 years, 30.8% had career experience of 6–10 years, and 53.8% had career experience of >10 years. It was also found that 69.2% were university teachers, and 30.8% were managers and experts at the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and Planning and the Research Center of Educational Studies. Females constituted 39.8%, and males constituted 69.2% of the participants.

After collecting data from interviews and texts, they were subjected to analysis and coding in three stages: open, axial, and selective coding. In open coding, the compatibility between the homogeneity of the data and the categories derived was checked with regard to the information collected from the interviews. Then, in axial coding, the categories derived from open coding were recombined as a paradigm model based on Corbin and Strauss’s approach, including causal conditions, contextual conditions, intervening factors, strategies, and consequences, in order to provide a more precise and rational picture of the findings. Finally, selective coding was performed to reach the core category. The output of selective coding is the paradigm model and the basic theory. Based on the interviews, redundant and unrelated items were discarded, and the items that were repeated the most in the interviews were extracted.

Considering climate change and climatic crises worldwide (Romanello et al., 2022), the primary strategy to deal with climate change implications is to spread and apply CSA practices (Alliagbor et al., 2021). In this regard, planning in accordance with CSA is crucial in the education sector, whose ignorance will impose irreparable damage to Iran’s economy and people’s food security. So, appropriate education must be provided to start implementing environmental protection programs (Agus and Ali, 2022). Since trainees’ activities in technical and vocational schools and agricultural vocational schools require diverse climate change-compatible training (Derbile et al., 2022) and the type of programs in formal education has not been considered adequately, the present research focused on exploring and analyzing the challenges of developing and implementing CSA-based curriculum in Iran’s agricultural vocational schools. To help scholars to identify the challenges, the results have also been compared with relevant research. The results of coding the interviews and analyzing the findings in the qualitative phase prove it. The paradigm derived in the research specifies not only the conditions underpinning the implementation of a CSA-based curriculum, which includes causal, intervening, and contextual conditions, but also strategies and consequences. The results are as follows:

With a focus on the challenges of developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum (the core phenomenon), the interviewees described its nature and reasons. Also, the philosophy and premise mentioned by the respondents in this description and in expressing their opinions and experiences mainly pointed to the key components and categories influencing curriculum implementation, which is an important phenomenon that can be a response to curriculum development. This research identified the challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum as the core phenomenon. It should be noted that agricultural education systems can prepare students to deal with fluctuations and uncertainties caused by climate change, propose solutions for coping with the growing risks of this phenomenon, and mitigate the adverse consequences of climate change. This support is essential, especially in Iran’s conditions. On the other hand, the challenges of curriculum, especially the CSA-based curriculum, in responding to climate change can aggravate environmental and social losses. Thus, the educational system should be alerted to respond to climate change challenges. Obviously, curriculum researchers and experts, as the most important capital of the educational system, play a fundamental role in achieving this mission. Previous studies (Handayani, 2021; Kombat et al., 2021; Ahmed et al., 2022) have reported results similar to our findings.

To respond to climate change effectively, an educational system must consider diverse processes and activities. The question is whether the educational system of agricultural vocational schools can respond to trainees’ needs and adapt them to climate change. It is currently difficult to achieve this goal. The trainees’ lack of access to proper technologies that are compatible with climate change is the biggest barrier to their ability to provide services efficiently. This problem can be solved by reinforcing the links between research centers and educational centers. The need for conducting research on climate by both research and academic centers is self-evident. Based on our results, educational decentralization is the most appropriate solution from the perspective of causal conditions to develop and implement a CSA-based curriculum. This has been emphasized by other researchers, too (Salter and Maxwell, 2016; Stevenson et al., 2017; Karsantik and Tan Şişman, 2021).

Non-interactive educational content, weakness in skill-oriented educational content, weakness in content updating, traditional teaching, weakness in promoting analytical skills, weakness in trainees’ effective learning, and learning inefficiency influence the development and implementation of a CSA-based curriculum as contextual conditions. It can be understood that trainees in agricultural vocational schools are educated with a traditional method, and most of them lack such skills as group making, systemic thinking, knowledge management, networking, conflict settlement, and negotiation. In the meantime, most managerial decisions regarding climate change must be adopted collectively, so agricultural trainers should be capable of forming groups of trainees and triggering group discussions for opinion sharing. Educating the content by explaining it to students can be useful. Learning by education can be effective when students have well understood the educational content. This finding is supported by previous studies (Mahapatra and Satapathy, 2016; Lachner et al., 2022; Mohammed et al., 2023).

Improper teaching, lack of teaching diversity, lack of exploratory teaching, weakness in strengthening problem-solving skills, poor visual content, poor textual content, and poor fitness of evaluation methods with educational goals adversely impact the development and implementation of a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational schools. These factors are especially involved in realizing and forming a CSA-based curriculum. Trainees’ lack of knowledge and awareness about climate change in agricultural vocational schools and their unawareness of how to manage climate change risks are challenges of the agricultural education system. Therefore, educational institutions, including agricultural vocational schools, must detect multiple educational methods and use their capacities and potential to raise awareness of climate change and solutions to mitigate it swiftly and precisely. The institutions in charge should also provide schools, especially agricultural vocational schools, with software (human resources) and hardware facilities (equipment and physical sources). This agrees with previous studies (Salter and Maxwell, 2016; Raghuvanshi and Ansari, 2017; Dhal, 2021; Esringü and Toy, 2022).

Developing and implementing a curriculum needs attention to performance goals, executive (behavioral) goals, and approach goals. By adopting these strategies, one can hope to increase attention to CSA in the curriculum of agricultural vocational schools. The educational system should identify students’ knowledge and skill needs by using various techniques, e.g., information gap analysis, and thereby present continuous and directed educational programs. Since fast response to climate change plays an essential role in effective risk management, curricula should introduce technologies that are compatible with local conditions in each region. In this regard, not only should curricula consider the dissemination of new climate change management techniques, but efforts should also be made to transfer simple techniques and technologies that can contribute to reinforcing farmers’ resilience against climate change. Our findings corroborate the results of some studies (Neve and Collett, 2018; Esringü and Toy, 2022; Lachner et al., 2022).

Consequences result from strategies and actions taken to cope with and mitigate the challenges of developing and implementing a curriculum. The distinctive roles of agricultural trainers include managerial role (checking the status, needs analysis, organizing, coordinating, executing, monitoring, and evaluating), executive and educational role (training, consultation, researching, and publishing innovations), guiding role (leadership and intervention), social role (making trust and drawing the cooperation of trainees), motivating role, empowering role (knowledge and skill), and technical role (providing technical consultations and training). In general, agricultural trainers need various skills, including knowledge and information, personal-professional, social-psychological, and research skills, to play these roles desirably. Previous researchers (Cleary et al., 2017; Heikkilä et al., 2017; Barnes et al., 2018; Neve and Collett, 2018) have reported similar results.

Climate change is an unavoidable reality of the current and future centuries. Although efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions can slow it down, we will inevitably face some of these changes. In this regard, the educational system of agricultural vocational schools should consider suitable mechanisms to increase adaptation to climate change, which requires developing and implementing a CSA-based curriculum. Given the current challenges in the curriculum of agricultural vocational school, the educational system should change its orientation to select the best curriculum for coping with climate change and variability. Trainers play an undeniable role in increasing the response of educational systems to climate change challenges. Therefore, the educational system of agricultural vocational schools should not only recruit efficient trainers who are specialized in CSA but also make appropriate investments in improving a curriculum based on modern technologies. In addition, they must consider improving the organization of trainers and human resources development and pay special attention to empowering trainees in agricultural vocational schools, so managers and trainers can work with more authority and be more effective in implementing the CSA-based curriculum.

As with other studies, this research has some limitations whose removal can pave the way for further quantitative and qualitative studies. First, the statistical population was composed of the researchers, authors, managers, and experts of the Office of Textbook Compilation of the Organization for Educational Research and Planning and the Research Center of Educational Studies. Although they provided invaluable insight into curriculum implementation in agricultural vocational schools, the results may be different for other statistical populations. It is therefore recommended to conduct the research at other educational levels and make a comparison between the results. The second limitation is that only agricultural vocational schools in Iran were studied. So, there is a chance to conduct a similar study on other countries’ agricultural, technical, and vocational schools and compare the results. The third limitation is related to the novelty of the topic, which reduced the literature available for developing a theoretical framework. Thus, researchers are recommended to use the proposed conceptual paradigm as a basis to solve the challenges of implementing a CSA-based curriculum in agricultural vocational schools.

The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/restrictions: the original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to mehrdad.niknami@iau.ac.ir.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

MJ: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Software, Writing – original draft. MN: Formal analysis, Investigation, Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. MS: Methodology, Validation, Writing – review & editing. MB: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.