SDG1 was established as part of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015. Its overarching aim is to eradicate poverty in all its forms everywhere by 20,230. This goal is significant as it recognizes the multidimensional nature of poverty and aims to address various aspects such as social, economic, and environmental factors that contribute to poverty (Feliciano, 2019; Leal Filho et al., 2021).

SDG 1 encompasses several targets designed to achieve specific outcomes related to poverty eradication. Target 1.1 focuses on eradicating extreme poverty for all people everywhere, ensuring that no one lives on less than $1.9 a day. Meanwhile, Target 1.2 aims to reduce poverty in all its forms by at least 50%, addressing various dimensions such as income, access to basic services, and social protection. Targets 1.3 and 1.4 aim to establish comprehensive social protection systems to support the poor and vulnerable, ensuring they have equal access to economic resources and essential services. Target 1.5 focuses on enhancing the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social, and environmental shocks and disasters. Lastly, Targets 1.a and 1.b emphasize the critical need to mobilize resources and establish robust policy frameworks to eradicate poverty (United Nations, 2015; Moyer and Hedden, 2020; Leal Filho et al., 2021).

To measure progress towards these targets, various indicators are employed. These include the proportion of the population living below the national and international poverty lines, the coverage of social protection systems, the access to basic services, and the extent of ownership and control over land and other forms of property by both men and women. These indicators provide a comprehensive assessment of poverty levels and the effectiveness of policies aimed at improving economic resources and social protection for vulnerable populations (Omomowo, 2018; Leal Filho et al., 2021). Additionally, indicators such as the number of deaths, missing persons, and directly affected persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population, and the proportion of local governments that adopt and implement local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national disaster risk reduction strategies, are used to measure progress towards building resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social, and environmental shocks and disasters (Chmutina et al., 2021).

It should be highlighted that although the poverty is mainly addressed in SDG 1, the achievement of this goal depends on the other goals as poverty eradication is foundational to achieving sustainable development (Feliciano, 2019; Leal Filho et al., 2021). For instance, SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) directly benefit from poverty reduction, as improved economic conditions enable better access to nutritious food and healthcare. Education (SDG 4) and gender equality (SDG 5) are also closely tied to poverty alleviation, as financial stability provides greater opportunities for learning and empowerment. Access to clean water and sanitation (SDG 6) and clean energy (SDG 7) is often limited in the impoverished areas. Eradicating poverty can facilitate investments in water and renewable energy sources to improve infrastructure and services, ensuring that all individuals have access to these essential resources. Furthermore, SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) emphasize the creation of sustainable infrastructure and industry as well as fair employment opportunities and equitable resource distribution, which are crucial for lifting people out of poverty.

SDG 1 is intrinsically linked to responsible consumption and production (SDG 12), climate action (SDG 13), life below water (SDG 14), life on land (SDG 15), peace, justice, and strong institutions (SDG 16), and partnerships for the goals (SDG 17). Indeed, eradicating poverty ensures sustainable consumption and production patterns by enabling resource-efficient and equitable growth. Climate action and environmental conservation are critical for protecting the livelihoods of impoverished communities who are most vulnerable to environmental degradation and climate change. Strong institutions and justice systems are essential for protecting the rights of the poor and ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities. Finally, achieving SDG 1 requires robust partnerships at all levels, leveraging collective actions and resources to address the multifaceted nature of poverty and promote sustainable development.

Poverty is a multifaceted and intricate concept, with numerous definitions presented in the literature. Overall, poverty is characterized by a range of interrelated issues, including chronic hunger, malnutrition, poor health, and limited access to education and other essential services. It is often accompanied by increased morbidity and mortality rates, inadequate housing, and unsafe living conditions. Poverty also manifests in social exclusion, discrimination, and the lack of opportunities to participate in civil, social, and cultural life. These factors together highlight the multifaceted nature of poverty, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to address its various dimensions. Thus, addressing poverty necessitates a multidisciplinary approach that considers all the aforementioned variables (Feliciano, 2019; Buheji, 2021; Kamruzzaman, 2021; Usmanova et al., 2022; Hassan et al., 2023).

Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon resulting from a combination of various factors. Recognizing this complexity, the United Nations introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which evaluates poverty through multiple indicators such as education, health, and living standards, among other variables. This approach highlights that poverty is not solely about insufficient income. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) underscores the importance of understanding poverty as encompassing a lack of access to health, education, and adequate living conditions. According to the UNDP’s MPI, over 1.3 billion people were living in multidimensional poverty in 2021, facing deprivations across several aspects of their lives. This comprehensive perspective allows for more effective strategies to address the diverse and interconnected elements of poverty (Usmanova et al., 2022; He et al., 2023).

In the literature, two additional concepts related to poverty are frequently discussed: absolute poverty and overall poverty. Absolute poverty refers to the deprivation of basic human needs, such as food, shelter, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, education, and access to information. This concept is about the minimum level of subsistence that individuals need to survive. On the other hand, overall poverty encompasses a broader range of deprivations, focusing on people’s inability to access income and other productive resources that enable them to lead fulfilling lives. This includes not only basic needs but also access to opportunities that facilitate economic and social development (Mhlanga, 2021). Extreme poverty is defined as living in a condition of severe deprivation of basic human needs, which includes living below the International Poverty Line. This threshold was originally set at $1.90 per day but has recently been adjusted to $2.15 per day to account for changes in cost of living and inflation. Today, approximately 10% of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty, facing substantial challenges in meeting their basic needs for survival and well-being (Kamruzzaman, 2021; Cabanillas-Carbonell et al., 2023; He et al., 2023).

Poverty remains a significant global challenge, affecting millions of people worldwide. Inequality within and between countries significantly contributes to the persistence of poverty. Wealth is increasingly concentrated among the top echelons of society, while millions of people remain without access to basic services and opportunities for improvement. This growing disparity undermines social cohesion, economic stability, and the capacity of societies to effectively respond to crises (Wietzke, 2020). Climate change and environmental degradation disproportionately affect the world’s poorest populations, who often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Droughts, floods, and extreme weather events can devastate livelihoods, particularly in agrarian communities and developing countries. These impacts exacerbate existing vulnerabilities and contribute to a cycle of poverty and environmental degradation. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on global poverty. It has reversed years of progress in poverty reduction, pushing millions of people into extreme poverty. The economic downturn caused by the pandemic has led to job losses, reduced income, and increased food insecurity, disproportionately affecting the poorest and most vulnerable populations (Leal Filho et al., 2021; Lakner et al., 2022; Saidi et al., 2023).

Despite significant progress in reducing global poverty over the past few decades, extreme poverty remains a pressing issue. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the global poverty rate had been on a steady decline, with notable successes in countries like China and India significantly contributing to the reduction in global poverty. These countries implemented policies that spurred economic growth, improved access to education and healthcare, and expanded social protection programs, leading to substantial decreases in poverty levels. However, Sub-Saharan Africa has emerged as a region with the highest rates of extreme poverty and the fastest-growing population, presenting substantial challenges for poverty reduction efforts. The region’s poverty rate has remained stubbornly high due to a combination of factors, including political instability, economic stagnation, limited access to education and healthcare, and frequent environmental shocks, such as droughts and floods (Wietzke, 2020; Saidi et al., 2023).

MPI remains persistently high in Africa, reflecting a combination of factors that contribute to poor health and inadequate living conditions. Many Africans suffer from poor health due to inadequate access to clean water, sanitation, nutritious food, and healthcare services. Diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, along with high maternal and child mortality rates, significantly contribute to multidimensional poverty (Crespo Cuaresma et al., 2018; Atangana, 2022; Kakpo et al., 2022; Saidi et al., 2023).

Successful initiatives and case studies have demonstrated significant progress towards reducing poverty through targeted social protection programs, microfinance services, and disaster risk reduction strategies. One notable example is Bangladesh’s “Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction” program. This initiative has significantly reduced poverty levels, especially in rural areas, by providing social safety nets and livelihood opportunities for the most vulnerable populations. The program includes cash transfers, food security measures, and skill development training, which have collectively helped lift many families out of poverty. In Rwanda, the government’s efforts to promote financial inclusion and entrepreneurship have led to a notable reduction in poverty rates. The expansion of microfinance services has empowered individuals, particularly women, to start small businesses and improve their economic status. These services include access to small loans, savings accounts, and financial education, which have collectively contributed to economic empowerment and poverty reduction. The Philippines has made significant strides in mitigating the impact of natural disasters on vulnerable populations through community-based disaster risk reduction initiatives. These programs involve local communities in disaster preparedness and response planning, improving resilience and minimizing the economic and human toll of climate-related disasters (Carcellar et al., 2011; Cho and Kim, 2017; Nesa Hyder, 2020).

Asian nations have utilized holistic approaches to tackle poverty, incorporating economic policies, social welfare programs, education and skill development initiatives, and technological innovations. The significant declines in poverty rates in countries such as China, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and other Southeast Asian nations provide valuable lessons for African countries (Asadullah et al., 2020; Buheji, 2020a).

Asian countries have effectively leveraged sustained economic growth to implement policies ensuring inclusivity and equal opportunities, significantly reducing poverty. They have heavily invested in education and healthcare, empowering individuals with the skills and well-being needed to fully participate in the economy. For example, China and India have undertaken extensive educational reforms and expanded healthcare access, leading to improved literacy rates and health outcomes (Dash, 2022). Technological advancements have also been pivotal in creating new employment opportunities, enhancing agricultural productivity, and delivering social services more efficiently. Indonesia has utilized digital platforms to improve agricultural practices, while South Korea has driven its manufacturing and service sectors through high-tech job creation (Obirikorang et al., 2021; Saleem et al., 2023).

Government-led initiatives, in collaboration with NGOs and the private sector, have expanded social safety nets, such as direct cash transfers and rural development projects. Malaysia’s 1Malaysia People’s Aid (BR1M) program provides direct financial assistance to low-income households, demonstrating the impact of such initiatives. Additionally, community-led efforts have engaged more people in poverty elimination strategies, ensuring that these strategies are tailored to local needs and conditions. Bangladesh’s community-based approaches in poverty reduction programs exemplify the success of grassroots initiatives. These strategies offer valuable lessons for African countries (Gomez et al., 2021; Masud-All-Kamal and Nursey-Bray, 2021). By investing in education and healthcare, leveraging technology, fostering public–private partnerships, and encouraging community involvement, African nations can develop holistic approaches to poverty reduction. Adapting these proven methods to local contexts can help build a robust foundation for sustainable development and economic growth in Africa.

Eliminating poverty presents a complex array of multidimensional and interconnected challenges, necessitating comprehensive and sustained efforts from international organizations, civil society, and the private sector. Economic instability, recession, and insufficient job creation significantly hinder efforts to eliminate poverty. Achieving sustained economic growth that is both inclusive and equitable is crucial for this endeavor. To address inequality, it is essential to implement policies that ensure the fair distribution of resources and opportunities. Additionally, a critical challenge is the lack of access to quality education and vocational training, which reduces the chances of securing well-paying jobs. Therefore, substantial investment in education and skills development is imperative to empower individuals and lift them out of poverty. By prioritizing these areas, we can create a more inclusive and prosperous society for all (Wietzke, 2020; Leal Filho et al., 2021).

Additionally, poor health and lack of access to affordable healthcare significantly hinder efforts to reduce poverty. Health crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have further exposed vulnerabilities in healthcare systems, disproportionately affecting the poor and exacerbating existing inequalities. To mitigate these impacts, effective social protection systems are essential. These systems must provide support during times of unemployment, illness, or other crises to prevent individuals from falling deeper into poverty. Many poor individuals depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, making them particularly vulnerable to challenges such as climate change, land degradation, and market access issues. These factors can threaten food security and reduce incomes, making it even more difficult for people to escape poverty. Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive strategies that include investing in resilient agricultural practices, improving market access, and ensuring sustainable land management (Pérez-Peña et al., 2021; Lakner et al., 2022).

Limited access to credit and financial services hampers the ability of individuals and businesses in poor communities to invest, grow, and improve their economic situation. Without financial resources, it is challenging for them to start or expand businesses, invest in education, or improve their living conditions, which perpetuates the cycle of poverty. Additionally, inadequate or poor basic infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and sanitation, has a profound impact on health, education, and economic opportunities. Poor infrastructure can lead to higher disease rates due to inadequate sanitation and lack of clean water. It can also limit educational opportunities when schools lack basic facilities or children are unable to travel safely to attend school. Furthermore, without reliable electricity, businesses cannot operate efficiently, and economic activities are severely constrained (Mhlanga, 2021; Wiratama et al., 2023).

Climate change is one of the main obstacles to poverty elimination, as extreme weather events disproportionately affect the poorest and most vulnerable communities. These events can lead to loss of livelihoods, displacement, and increased food insecurity, directly and indirectly exacerbating poverty. Corruption, political instability, and lack of accountability further undermine efforts to eliminate poverty. When resources intended for development are mismanaged or siphoned off, the effectiveness of poverty reduction programs is significantly diminished. Additionally, political instability can disrupt economic activities and deter investment, making it difficult to sustain progress in poverty alleviation. While globalization can offer opportunities for economic development, it can also have adverse effects on vulnerable populations if not managed inclusively. Trade and investment policies must be designed to ensure they benefit all segments of society, particularly the poor. This includes creating fair trade practices, protecting workers’ rights, and ensuring that investments contribute to local development. Effective governance and strong political commitment are essential for implementing successful poverty elimination policies. Governments must be transparent, accountable, and responsive to the needs of their citizens. This involves not only enacting sound policies but also ensuring their effective implementation and monitoring. Political will at all levels is crucial to prioritize poverty reduction and mobilize the necessary resources and support to achieve it (Leichenko and Silva, 2014; Obirikorang et al., 2021; Birkmann et al., 2022).

Industry 4.0 can contribute to addressing the root causes of poverty by transforming economic activities, creating new job opportunities in innovative technological sectors, and improving access to essential services. Here are several ways in which Industry 4.0 can contribute to poverty elimination:

Industry 4.0 technologies have been implemented in various projects across the globe with the objective of combating poverty. These projects leverage advancements, such as AI, robotics, IoT, big data analytics, and blockchain to create innovative solutions to poverty-related challenges. By integrating these technologies, these initiatives aim to enhance productivity, improve access to essential services, and create sustainable economic opportunities for disadvantaged communities.

Applying Industry 4.0 to the challenges in Africa and developing countries involves addressing several key factors, including infrastructure development, education and skills development, finance and capital for investment, regulatory and policy framework, and collaborations and partnerships, among others (Jellason et al., 2021).

Effective observation is critical to understanding community needs, living conditions, and available resources. This involves assessing infrastructure, health facilities, educational institutions, and economic activities. Observations should focus on identifying value-added (VA) opportunities and waste within communities. By visiting households and engaging directly with community members, observers can gain insights into the daily challenges faced by families in poverty, allowing for tailored interventions. Observations should also include codification, classification, and stratification of collected data to better understand and address specific needs.

Furthermore, observations enhance the availability, efficiency, and effectiveness of poverty elimination efforts by ensuring that interventions are based on accurate and comprehensive data. Regular observation helps monitor progress, ensuring interventions are carried out as planned and identifying any deviations or challenges early on. This continuous monitoring allows for adaptive management, where interventions can be modified in response to observed changes in the community or environment. Observing local practices and resources can reveal innovative solutions that may be strengthened or replicated, building trust and fostering community ownership. Post-intervention observations assess the changes in the community or households, evaluating the direct and indirect impacts of the poverty elimination efforts.

In summary, observation provides a rich, qualitative understanding that complements quantitative data, offering a holistic view of the challenges and opportunities in tackling poverty. It requires careful planning, cultural sensitivity, and ethical consideration to ensure it contributes effectively to project goals.

Visualization, based on data analysis, the experience, taking a pause, dealing with problems, dealing with uncertainty and learning from failures, enhances understanding and communication of complex data. Tools such as geographic information systems can map poverty, identify hotspots, and overlay various datasets to reveal underlying factors. Visualizations like line graphs and dashboards track poverty rates and intervention impacts over time, aiding policymakers in choosing effective strategies.

Real-time data visualization dashboards monitor progress using metrics like access to education, healthcare, employment rates, and living standards improvements. Effective visualizations should incorporate storytelling, infographics, and interactive tools to communicate challenges and successes, engaging a broader audience, including the public, donors, and policymakers. These tools facilitate data sharing, promote cooperation, and make complex data understandable and actionable, empowering stakeholders to make informed decisions and track progress in poverty eradication efforts.

The framework emphasizes the crucial role of managing mindsets and assumptions about poverty and its complexities. This involves addressing and shaping attitudes, behaviors, reactions, and reflections related to poverty. The importance of mindset in poverty elimination projects cannot be overstated. Shifting mindsets is vital for the success of poverty elimination initiatives. Encouraging resilience, self-efficacy, and a collective belief in improvement fosters community engagement and participation. It is essential to cultivate a mindset open to long-term goals, continuous learning, and adaptation to changing circumstances. This adaptability ensures that communities are prepared to handle setbacks and evolving challenges effectively. Overcoming stereotypes and biases through critical thinking and empathy is crucial. Negative stereotypes and biases can hinder the effectiveness of poverty elimination efforts by perpetuating misconceptions and reducing the willingness to engage in meaningful change. Encouraging critical thinking helps individuals challenge these stereotypes, fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment for poverty alleviation efforts.

Educational curricula and workshops play a significant role in mindset management. By integrating mindset-oriented programs that emphasize self-efficacy, critical thinking, and resilience, communities can be better equipped to face challenges. Success stories within and across communities are powerful tools to inspire belief in the possibility of change and improvement. These narratives provide tangible examples of progress, motivating individuals and communities to take proactive steps toward poverty elimination. Additionally, mentorship programs and support networks are essential for reinforcing positive mindsets. These initiatives provide practical assistance, encouragement, and advice, helping individuals navigate the complexities of poverty elimination efforts. By fostering a supportive community, these programs can enhance the collective effort towards sustainable development.

In summary, managing mindsets is a foundational element of the framework, essential for creating a conducive environment for poverty elimination. By promoting resilience, self-efficacy, and critical thinking, and by addressing stereotypes and biases, stakeholders can cultivate a collective belief in improvement and sustainable development.

Industry 4.0 is the next revolution that will include new digital innovations and improve several existing technologies in developing countries. The core principle of Industry 4.0 is based on the convergence between digital, physical, and biological scientific domains, which allow make significant progress and overcome complex challenges, including poverty eradication. Although growing evidence from many manufacturing fields in developed countries shows that Industry 5.0 (referring to the fifth industrial revolution) is already underway (Ghobakhloo et al., 2022; Maddikunta et al., 2022; Baig and Yadegaridehkordi, 2023), Africa has just started to grasp the aspects of Industry 4.0.

Implementing the first stage of Industry 4.0 requires affordable high-speed internet connectivity and upgrading existing infrastructure. Indeed, IT infrastructure and network in rural areas are among the basic conditions for implementing the first stage of Industry 4.0 in Africa. With the growing utilization of smartphones and other digital devices in Africa, farmers and other agriculture businesses may be able in the coming few years to transmute into digital agriculture ushering in a new era of economic growth in developing countries. Africa, which has been left behind during the past industrial revolutions can hope to unlock the potential of ongoing Industry 4.0, bridging the development gap with the rest of the world.

Several strategies can be incorporated into the proposed framework to reduce the risk of bias in observations and other processes.

Firstly, developing standardized protocols for data collection will ensure consistency and minimize subjective interpretation. Training observers in cultural sensitivity and bias recognition will further reduce personal biases. Using triangulation, which involves multiple data sources and methods, will validate findings and enhance reliability. Conducting blind observations, where observers are unaware of expected outcomes, will also prevent bias. Engaging community members in the observation process will provide diverse perspectives and ensure that local knowledge is accurately represented. Ensuring data transparency by documenting and sharing methodologies will build trust and credibility. Inclusive representation through participatory mapping and involving the community in visualization processes will help depict accurate and comprehensive data.

Raising awareness about cognitive biases through workshops and encouraging critical reflection among project teams will help manage mindsets. Establishing feedback mechanisms for community input will ensure that diverse viewpoints are considered and incorporated. During the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies, conducting pilot tests will help identify and mitigate biases before broader application. Independent audits and real-time data analytics will provide objective evaluations and reduce human bias in decision-making processes. These integrated strategies will ensure that observations and subsequent actions are unbiased, reliable, and effective in leveraging Industry 4.0 technologies for poverty elimination.