The growing interest in this subject is demonstrated by first conducting a bibliometric analysis of jackfruit seed utilization to understand global trends. Bibliometric analysis is a scientific computer-assisted review methodology used to identify core research or authors, as well as their relationships, by covering all publications related to a given topic or field (Han et al., 2020). In this study, 39 findings from 34 diverse sources were compiled, all obtained through an online search using the phrase “jackfruit AND seeds AND utilization” in the Scopus database. The analysis was carried out using a bibliometric cloud platform called “biblioshiny.” Notably, no limitations were imposed on the type of documents or the years of publication, although the search was confined to English-language publications. [Link to CSV file – https://t.ly/GimwQ].

To improve our understanding of the key research objective and contextual problems resulting from the underutilization of jackfruit seeds, we employed two primary data methods (Interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)). First, interviews were conducted with an average of four individuals per household, and we interacted with a total of 27 households. To do this, purposive and simple random sampling were employed for interview participants (Rai and Thapa, 2019); 80 local participants in Byse were considered FGDs who had experience with the use of jackfruit. The purposeful selection of participants sought to gather a range of viewpoints and experiences regarding the availability of jackfruit and its seeds as a source of human subsistence in Byse village. The sample size was determined by using the Slovin (1960) formula as shown below: n = N 1 + N e 2 where,

N is the population size (that is, the total number of the selected population).

n is the required sample size, and.

e is the sampling error (which is 5%).

N = 108.

e = 5% n = 108 1 + 108 0.05 2

n = 80.

This study used Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and a Household survey as the main methods for collecting data using both structured and unstructured questionnaires. This was done to thoroughly examine aspects linked to knowledge on jackfruit, its utilization and underutilization. We also used participant observation to identify instances of underutilization and human subsistence activities in the Byse community.

Descriptive statistical analysis was performed on the quantitative data obtained from the study participants in Byse. To comprehensively validate and synthesize the findings, we quantified the findings, especially on jackfruit availability and consumption patterns. Simultaneously, we calculated and visualized data on aspects related to the underutilization of seeds and the distribution of human subsistence activities. These quantitative results offered a quantifiable baseline for evaluating human subsistence activities and the frequency and kind of jackfruit-related practices in the households.

Thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data gathered from the FGDs. To do this, recurrent themes and patterns in the participants’ narratives were identified, coded, and categorized. The aim was to gain an in-depth understanding of the human subsistence activities that are carried out in the Byse community and to uncover complex viewpoints on the use and importance of jackfruit. This technique allowed for the extraction of themes that addressed the economic and social aspects of jackfruit-related activities, which helped to provide a thorough understanding of the value of jackfruits and local perspectives on their utilization. The combination of both quantitative and qualitative findings enabled a comprehensive analysis of the data, enhancing the general conclusions reached from the study.

The application of jackfruit seeds has gained traction in research since it is believed that they are a frequently disregarded and undervalued part of jackfruit. Research reveals that jackfruit seeds are rich in compounds such as proteins, lignins, saponins, flavonoids, and phenolics (Thiruselvi and Durairaj, 2018). Numerous physiological advantages, including anticancer, antihypertensive, antiaging, antioxidant, and antiulcer capabilities, have been linked to metabolites, especially in jackfruit seeds (Cheok et al., 2018; Chakraborty et al., 2022). The seeds of jackfruit fruit are also a rich source of vital minerals, especially potassium, followed by sodium, magnesium, and calcium (Ulloa et al., 2017). The recognition of these benefits has partly led to the proliferation of research in this field in recent years, with the highest spike of annual scientific article publications occurring in 2021 (Figure 2).

Unfortunately, booming research in jackfruit has hardly translated into increased citation interest. For instance, the highest number of average citations was recorded in 2019, and there has been a consistent decline in the number of citations related to jackfruit utilization since 2021. The lowest number of citations occurred between 1998 and 2003 (Figure 3).

In terms of country contributions to research in this field, a plethora of countries, especially in the tropics, have contributed articles on jackfruit utilization. A comprehensive survey on Scopus revealed that India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, and Malaysia have emerged as the primary contributors in this domain, with India taking the lead by a significant margin by the year 2023 (Figure 4). It is also noteworthy that 20.51% of the total production comprises documents coauthored internationally.

In the context of India, however, author leadership has shifted to authors in other countries over time. To put this into a clear perspective, while India has been actively publishing articles since 1993, the other countries began their contributions approximately 2015. Zhang, a Chinese national author, is the leading author of 29 articles about the utilization of jackfruit seeds (Figure 5).

Nevertheless, the examination of the correlation between articles, as reflected in their titles and keywords, reveals that India stands among the top ten countries, with a significant focus on research related to jackfruit seeds (Figure 6). This could allow for more impactful and insightful research into which India would be more productive in contributing to specific themes related to jackfruit seed utilization. This could be achieved through prioritizing collaboration with countries with lower scientific productivity but with significant contributions in specific document titles or keywords such as the United Kingdom, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. This is partly because research has proven that jackfruit seed-associated keywords are consistent for India, which confirms the trend of the jackfruit seed theme in the literature.

Other insights for India include geographical patterns showing emphasis on particular topics. Additionally, India’s authorship, which has a great impact on this kind of research, offers opportunities for the global distribution of expertise. Prominently, document titles indicate a concentration in specific aspects such as nutrition, agriculture, or health benefits of jackfruit utilization. The most recurring terms in the document titles include jackfruit, heterophyllous, seed, Artocarpus, and starch, with dominant keywords comprising jackfruit, functional properties, jackfruit seed starch, Artocarpus heterophyllus, waste utilization, jackfruit seed, starch, and jackfruit seed flour.

The survey also showed that the word ‘Artocarpus heterophyllus’, a species of jackfruit, is the most trending topic among all other dominating words. It had the highest frequency under investigation in these studies, followed by starch, as depicted in Figure 7.

The co-occurrence network analysis (Figure 8) revealed distinct clusters in the study of jackfruit seeds. The Red and Green Clusters focus on general characteristics, composition, and potential uses. They address functional features, chemical composition, and extraction methods. In these clusters, “Artocarpus heterophyllus” and “starch” were central, indicating high levels of significance. The blue cluster centers on jackfruit seed properties, especially functional and physicochemical aspects, suggesting applications in the bakery industry. The purple cluster highlights broader applications and characteristics of Artocarpus. It incorporates waste utilization, chemical, and aroma compounds. Researchers and policymakers are encouraged to explore the potential applications and significance of jackfruit seed starch depicted in the Red and Green Clusters. Additionally, the Blue Cluster offers insights for those interested in functional and physicochemical properties, guiding further research and applications in the Byse community for human subsistence.

The relationship between Artocarpus heterophyllus and starch (Figure 8) emphasizes the value of jackfruit seeds as a possible source of starch for several useful applications, such as cosmetic formulations, animal nutrition, dietary fiber sources, thickening agents, and binder and sizing agents (Kushwaha et al., 2023).

As demonstrated by the prominence of the keyword “waste utilization” in Figure 6 above, there is a growing emphasis and/or interest in research in this particular domain. However, as revealed in most studies, gaps are still prevalent in understanding or exploring the nutritional and health benefits of jackfruit seeds, as in most cases, they remain significantly underutilized on an industrial scale. This is irrespective of evidence that more than 15% of the fruit’s weight is made up of seeds, and increased research in this area could be a promising and profitable byproduct for sustainability (Sibi, 2022). To address this knowledge gap, a study in The Pharma Innovation Journal explored the possibility of using jackfruit seeds to make an affordable and healthy bread spread with desirable properties such as texture, flavor, and aroma (Habibah et al., 2021). Other studies have explored the use of jackfruit seeds to create innovative products, recognizing their untapped potential. This not only minimizes waste and postharvest losses but also diversifies business opportunities (Waghmare et al., 2019; Sibi, 2022). Considering every aspect, jackfruit seeds have the potential to be a sustainable and adaptable product. However, most studies still lacked local perspectives and evidence for advancing this case, and this is profoundly factored into our study by bringing to the fore local perspectives of people in Byse.

Field findings revealed that people in the Byse community mainly depend on agriculture for their human subsistence (Table 3). Studies have shown that in many cases, men are the majority involved in agricultural practices (John, 1998; Bradstock, 2005) and, as such, give them the power to control finances, leaving women vulnerable (Coley et al., 2023; Kanyagui et al., 2023). A study by (Ellis and Allison, 2004) noted that most of the time, women are left behind on farms. However, they have limited real control to direct the use of agricultural resources, yet their ability to generate income on their own is limited.

Therefore, it is imperative to examine the potential of underutilized jackfruit seeds as an alternative source of subsistence. This could enhance smallholder farmers’ income generation in the Byse rural community and reverse the gender inequality issues that affect most communities, especially in the developing world (Waghmare et al., 2019; Weintraub et al., 2022).

The principal agrarian pursuits constituting the primary means of sustenance within the Byse community were elucidated during the focus group discussion (FGD). These activities predominantly entail the cultivation of areca nuts and paddy rice, with areca nut cultivation being particularly prevalent. As evidenced by one farmer’s testimony during the FGD, “…. Areca nuts have gained popularity in the past five years due to their profitability. However, before then, paddy rice cultivation was the most popular.” Additionally, there are instances of ownership of cashew nut and coconut plantations among community members. A member of the women’s self-help group (SHG) highlighted that “… “…. It is also a common practice in the Byse community for people with unstable incomes to work on either areca nut farms or paddy farms or sell milk if they own milk cows.” Figure 9 delineates the prevalent means of subsistence within the Byse community.

The findings from the household survey revealed that, depending on the level of economic stability/security, a household would be either a farm owner or a farm worker. Figure 10 illustrates the human subsistence activity distribution.

With respect to the human subsistence activity distributions that were revealed in the Byse community, households mainly depend on agriculture in a variety of ways to support livelihood welfare. One of the main agricultural practices carried out in this community is the growth of areca nuts. Approximately 28% of the respondents were arecanut farm owners who rely on arecanut cultivation for income generation, while 6% of the participants utilized arecanut for home use. It is a common practice in the Byse community for less privileged people to work in farmlands for income. Approximately 6% of the participants earn a living by working in arecanut fields. They maintain their human subsistence while supporting a collaborative effort that sustains the village’s agricultural foundation. Paddy rice is another important source of income and a staple food. A significant 18% of people are paddy rice farm owners who make their living from cultivating and selling the product. While 6% cultivated paddy rice for their home consumption, approximately 8% of the participants were employed as paddy rice farm workers. This dual representation shows the value of paddy rice as a staple food and as a source of income. The cultivation of black pepper and cashew nut also plays a role in income generation. It accounted for approximately 2 and 4% of the participants, respectively. The Byse community significantly practices dairy cattle rearing, of which 4% of the participants make their living by selling cow milk and 2% of people use cow milk only for home consumption. Additionally, coconut cultivation provided 8% of the participants with a significant additional source of income, and only 2% cultivated coconut for home consumption. Despite income-focused activities (Ganesh et al., 2020), it is interesting to note that there is a heavy emphasis on self-consumption as well. For example, 6% of the population consumes more cashew nuts to satisfy their demands, which also provides income for approximately 4% of the participants. In contrast to agricultural operations, approximately 8% of the population does not participate in any plantation activity. These complex human subsistence patterns demonstrate the community’s reliance on agriculture for sustenance and income while also demonstrating a balance between income generation and local consumption. To further diversify their livelihoods, some local households are venturing into jackfruit cultivation, which is complemented by the harvesting of wild jackfruit. This is because local people anticipate that this could increase their household revenue streams, promote resilience in the face of shifting agricultural dynamics, alleviate risks emanating from the declining revenue associated with low crop yields, and mitigate fluctuations in markets as well as climatic uncertainties. These perspectives on the need for diversification and alternative sources for human subsistence are supported by several studies (Baird and Gray, 2014).

A duopoly of human and environmental risks is prevalent in Byse. Prominently, climate change poses a significant challenge to the Byse community, impacting essential economic sectors, with agriculture emerging as the most vulnerable. Alterations in temperature, rainfall, and other life-threatening events stemming from climate variations have far-reaching consequences for community well-being. Furthermore, the community has experienced the consequences of climate change in the form of drought and flash rains, thus leading to soil degradation. The topsoil of the land surface is eroded by runoff water from heavy rains, resulting in diminished harvests of main crops and drying of jackfruit trees. This agricultural setback has compelled residents to travel to Nagara Market, which is situated 10 kilometers away from the village, to meet their daily basic (foodstuff) needs.

This is compounded by multitude human challenges, especially knowledge gaps related to the viability of jackfruit as a commercial product and the limited knowledge about commercially producing value-added products from jackfruit. Bridging these gaps could enhance their survival and improve their welfare, and alternative options based on jackfruit utilization could be developed, which could be completed with the continuous diversification of local businesses and assets (human subsistence diversification activities).

At least 15 households among those recorded in the survey had the most naturally growing jackfruit trees (Figure 11). These homes had trees that had grown because of natural processes, which may be an indication of a longer-standing presence of jackfruit trees in the Byse community. Approximately nine houses had mainly planted jackfruit trees. These households intentionally cultivated jackfruit trees. Interestingly, 22 houses had both naturally growing trees and a significant number of planted trees, demonstrating a variety of cultivation techniques. In some locations, households 18 and 20 stood apart because they also had a mixture of trees that were both planted and naturally grown, while household 26 appeared to be making minimum attempts with just a few planted trees. This variety of cultivation techniques illustrates the numerous methods households utilize to manage their jackfruit tree resources, including encouraging natural development and active planting techniques.

The jackfruit tree life cycle in the Byse community has a varied annual seasonal pattern (Table 4). The trees produce flowers during the months from November to December, and they start to bear fruit during this period. The growing season begins at the start of the new year and lasts through March.

In preparation for the next harvest, the immature jackfruit grows over these months. The ripe jackfruits are ready for harvest around April. The months during which the fruits are harvested from the trees when they have reached full maturity are May, June, July, and August. During September and October, fallowing is performed for the jackfruit trees, during which they are unable to bear fruit as they recover from the production cycle. The Byse community’s annual jackfruit cultivation pattern is defined by this cycle of flowering, fruiting, growth, and rest, which also influences the community’s agricultural practices and means of human subsistence.

The distribution of jackfruit tree ownership across the 27 households that were surveyed revealed a wide variety of tree counts. For instance, eight households had considerable ownership of 25-five jackfruit trees, while ten and 22 households had significant ownership of 15 and 20 trees, respectively. With tree counts ranging from two to seven, most homes maintained more moderate ownership. The fewest trees, however, were found in households 16 and 26, each of which had only one jackfruit tree. The heterogeneity of tree ownership within the community is highlighted by this distribution, which is likely driven by elements such as accessible land, agricultural endeavors, and individual preferences. These differences in ownership in the findings depict the varied levels of jackfruit cultivation engagement, showing the predominance of this practice in certain households and its comparatively little interest in others.

The analysis of jackfruit seed utilization in the Byse community is crucial due to its implications for community well-being and resource optimization. This section highlights the potential for enhancing the nutritional and economic benefits derived from jackfruit seeds, thereby advocating for their alternative uses to benefit villagers and the community at large. The consumption of jackfruit seeds by humans had a statistically significant but negative effect on the utilization of jackfruit seeds in the Byse community (r = −0.295, p = 0.008) (Table 4). This is an indication that jackfruit seeds are underutilized and must therefore be put to other uses to benefit the community at large. In confirmation of the above findings, the study results indicate that human consumption of jackfruit seeds had a positive and significant effect on consumption in the semidry form rather than in the fresh form (r = 0.345, p = 0.002) (Table 5). For this reason, more emphasis must be placed on the consumption of jackfruit in semidry form as a preference by the people of Byse village.

As shown in Table 6, the mean for rare utilization of seeds (1.77) was greater than that for the other means of utilization. This means that generally, there is less use of jackfruit seeds.

It was also found that among jackfruit seed users, there was more seed utilization by women than by men, which presupposes that some women eat fruit pulp and use semidried seeds in samba. As shown in Table 7, the mean seed utilization of women was greater than the mean seed utilization for men.

This is indicative of the gender domains in jackfruit use, as field findings revealed that more women use jackfruit seeds but on rare occasions than men do. This is well illustrated in Table 8, which shows that women make use of jackfruit seeds in the semidry form more than men do in Byse village.

From Table 9, approximately 77.5% of users claim that using jackfruit seeds has benefits, while another 22.5% believe that using jackfruit seeds has no benefits.

From Table 10, it is clear that most local people have great knowledge of the benefits of jackfruit seeds. Approximately 21 women agreed that the seeds can be turned into powder and used in food preparation. These benefits corroborate several findings in research that unearth several potential benefits of jackfruit, irrespective of the fact that in most communities, products such as jackfruit seeds are less utilized. When it is tapped into valuable products, it will help augment the income of the community.

Field findings from the Byse community have revealed significant insights related to jackfruit seeds and their (under)utilization, which could be well described in the literature. First, most local communities acknowledge the value of jackfruit, especially as a panacea for its nutritional requirements, alternative livelihood and sustainable economic stability (Ulloa et al., 2017). However, in most cases, harnessing the potential of jackfruit products, especially jackfruit seeds, largely remains untapped, and local knowledge on the benefits of these seeds is largely lacking. With this insight, increasing the amount of research and localizing initiatives in this discourse could be a feasible conduit for leveraging the untapped benefits of jackfruits, including seeds. This could occur through the turning of jackfruit seeds into flour and its use as an ingredient in food products with added value, which could crucially benefit local communities, especially women.