Public administration models have evolved significantly, reflecting transitions from classical bureaucratic arrangements to digitally enabled governance frameworks. As Ukeje et al. (2019) argue, bureaucracy is an “indecisive” and frequently contested concept, whose hierarchical and rule-bound nature is often simplistically criticized for rigidity and inefficiency, particularly within reform narratives in developing administrative systems. Early administrative models like Old Public Administration (OPA) are characterized by hierarchical and rule-bound operations, which Weber observed as “an iron cage” limiting flexibility and innovation (Rogers, 2003; p. 89). Rogers (2003, p. 97) stresses that “the diffusion of innovations in public administration has historically been slowed by entrenched bureaucratic inertia”. Public sector reforms across Africa have increasingly sought to embed results-oriented management and citizen-centric service delivery through digitalization and NPM-influenced governance models (Mbae et al., 2025; Egba et al., 2025). However, Ndukwe et al. (2021) observe that “reforms have largely failed to overcome bureaucratic resistance, weak institutions, and lack of political will, resulting in limited transformation.”

Digital Era Governance (DEG) represents a paradigm shift, leveraging ICT and AI to build transparent, efficient, and participatory institutions. Kaiser et al. (2024, p. 220) argue that DEG “integrates technology into governance to enable real-time data-driven decision-making, inclusivity, and accountability”. A recent milestone in Nigeria exemplifying DEG is the rollout of the Service-Wise GPT, an AI-powered assistant that “automates complex policy referencing, improving accuracy and speed in civil service task execution” (Anyanwu, 2025; p. 2). In her presentation, Walson-Jack (2025, as cited in Anyanwu, 2025) notes that “the integration of AI such as GPT into public service dramatically reduces bureaucratic bottlenecks and enables efficiency gains hitherto impossible” (Anyanwu, 2025, p. 3). However, the transition to DEG is “not merely technological but cultural and institutional, requiring paradigm shifts in governance approaches” (Luna et al., 2024; p. 101). Vigoda-Gadot and Mizrahi (2024, p. 3) emphasize the triadic nexus of “humans, machines, and organizations,” urging that governance models “must carefully balance automation benefits with human discretion and ethical oversight”.

Nigeria's digital governance ambitions are constrained by structural and socio-political challenges. Odiche and Amodu (2024, p. 150) highlight that “while digital technologies offer transformational potential, incomplete infrastructural development and significant digital literacy gaps impede progress”. They emphasize that “policymakers often overlook inclusivity, risking marginalization of rural and disadvantaged populations” (p. 153). Onwuegbuna et al. (2024, p. 202) identify bureaucratic rigidity as a critical barrier: “Public servants' bureaucratic resistance to digital adoption stems from job insecurity fears and lack of adequate ICT training”. These human factors “reduce the pace and quality of digital integration in Nigerian public institutions” (p. 203). Poor inter-agency coordination has been identified as a critical institutional constraint, as Kasiwi et al. (2025) observe that such fragmentation produces disjointed digital strategies, thereby limiting interoperability and constraining the scalability of e-governance systems. Wirtz et al. (2015, p. 365) also emphasized that “security concerns and infrastructural deficits remain key barriers to e-government uptake, which resonate profoundly in Nigeria's volatile context”. Furthermore, Punch Newspapers (2025, para. 10) reports growing cybersecurity threats that “challenge the integrity of government platforms, necessitating strengthened data protection policies and capacity building”. Growing cybersecurity threats undermine the integrity of Nigerian government platforms, highlighting the need for stronger data protection frameworks and sustained capacity-building for public institutions (Ikuero, 2022; Adebanjo et al., 2024).

Crucially, this study argues that the success of Digital Era Governance (DEG) in Nigeria is fundamentally predicated on the resolution of the country's chronic energy deficit. We conceptualize the “Governance–Energy Nexus” as a foundational dependency where energy reliability serves as the enabling substrate for institutional transparency and administrative efficiency. Without a stable power supply, the “immutable” nature of blockchain and the real-time processing of AI become functionally intermittent, thereby eroding the very citizen trust these technologies are meant to build. By positioning Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) as a core governance infrastructure rather than a secondary utility, the FIREs-TIDTPS framework acknowledges that energy security is a prerequisite for digital sovereignty. This perspective shifts the discourse from a technocentric focus on software to a socio-technical focus on “operational continuity.” In this model, RETs provide the resilient energy backbone necessary to sustain digital platforms in underserved urban and rural areas, ensuring that the benefits of smart governance are not limited by the failures of the national grid. Thus, the integration of clean energy is theorized here as an active driver of governance reform, providing the literal power needed to sustain a transparent and accountable public service. The digital divide remains stark; World Bank (2024, p. 4) data reveals that “only 42% of Nigeria's population have internet access, with urban centers and higher-income groups disproportionately represented”. This gap threatens to widen inequalities unless digital governance frameworks incorporate targeted inclusion strategies (Odiche and Amodu, 2024; p. 159).

Blockchain is increasingly recognized as a powerful tool in combating corruption and inefficiency in governance by creating “immutable transaction records accessible by all relevant stakeholders” (Boumaiza and Maher, 2024; p. 110). Onukwulu et al. (2025, p. 700) highlight how blockchain in Nigerian procurement processes “has led to drastic reductions in fraud occurrences and increased public confidence”. They emphasize “Blockchain's cryptographic security and decentralized design allows for transparency while safeguarding data integrity, a crucial feature for Nigerian governance systems suffering from opacity” (p. 705). Recent studies highlight that blockchain-based public service platforms, especially when integrated with automated data analytics, can significantly enhance traceability, streamline compliance through smart contracts, and help identify fraud and corruption risks in areas such as public procurement, welfare payments, and tax administration. This positions blockchain as a powerful driver of e-government reform (Wamba et al., 2024; Kassen, 2022, 2024; Hyvärinen et al., 2017). However, the literature consistently identifies regulatory ambiguities, underdeveloped legal frameworks, and insufficient institutional capacity as major barriers to adoption. To realize the anti-corruption and efficiency benefits of blockchain in public administration, it is crucial to establish clearer legal guidelines, effective governance models, and ongoing capacity-building initiatives (Cagigas et al., 2021; Warkentin and Orgeron, 2020). Adebanji et al. (2022, p. 21) caution that despite its promise, blockchain's implementation requires “significant infrastructural investments and digital literacy enhancements”.

Nigeria's public service has shifted from rigid, hierarchical Old Public Administration models toward Digital Era Governance (DEG), driven by ICT, AI, and blockchain innovations aimed at improving transparency, efficiency, and citizen participation. While AI tools like Service-Wise GPT have reduced bureaucratic bottlenecks, progress is hampered by infrastructural gaps, low digital literacy, bureaucratic resistance, poor inter-agency coordination, and cybersecurity threats, with internet access limited to 42% of the population. Blockchain shows strong potential in enhancing procurement transparency and reducing corruption, yet its adoption is constrained by unclear regulations, high infrastructure costs, and capacity deficits, making inclusive policy frameworks and targeted investment essential for sustainable digital transformation.

Estonia, Singapore, and Rwanda offer instructive models for digital governance, demonstrating how AI, digitalization, and renewable energy technologies can transform public service delivery and institutional transparency. While these countries provide invaluable lessons, Nigeria's unique governance environment necessitates contextual adaptation rather than direct replication (Kaiser et al., 2024; Adeniyi and Okusi, 2024). Estonia, a pioneer in e-government, established a highly interconnected digital ecosystem via its X-Road platform, enabling seamless interoperability across government databases, secure citizen identification, and transparent public transactions (Kaiser et al., 2024; Miskiewicz, 2022). With early adoption of blockchain ensuring public record integrity and digital literacy campaigns fostering citizen engagement, over 99% of government services are available online (Kaiser et al., 2024).

Singapore's Smart Nation programme exemplifies a largely top-down digital governance model that deploys AI-driven analytics and integrated platforms for real-time management of urban services, while coupling innovation with legal and governance frameworks for data protection (Das and Kwek, 2024; Engin and Treleaven, 2019). The integration of AI with digital platforms enhances urban management, health services, and public feedback systems. Singapore couples technological innovation with robust legal frameworks enforcing data privacy and emphasizes digital skills training within the civil service (Lim et al., 2020). Rwanda is a rapidly emerging exemplar, deploying digital public services and renewable energy to bridge infrastructural gaps (Miskiewicz, 2022). Governments and health systems are increasingly implementing AI-enabled mobile and telehealth platforms to enhance healthcare delivery and improve public service performance. Simultaneously, solar-powered infrastructure is utilized to operate AI units, kiosks, and other digital health nodes in rural and underserved areas where grid electricity is unreliable (Batista, 2025; Balakrishnan et al., 2025; Teklemariam et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2025). Nnadi et al. (2025) highlight the potential of integrating solar, wind, hydro, and biomass with fossil fuels in Nigeria to reduce transmission losses and improve rural energy access. They note significant challenges, such as high initial costs, regulatory hurdles, and insufficient technical expertise. Additionally, policy inconsistencies and a weak regulatory framework hinder progress, exemplified by the ineffective Electric Power Sector Reform Act of 2005 in facilitating renewable energy integration (p. 12).

However, Nigeria's federal and decentralized governance structure contrasts sharply with the unitary systems in Estonia and Rwanda, requiring a phased, multi-tiered approach tailored to institutional capacities at all levels (Adeniyi and Okusi, 2024). Infrastructural and digital divides are more pronounced in Nigeria, with only 42% internet access, necessitating targeted interventions for electricity, connectivity, and digital literacy (Odiche and Amodu, 2024; World Bank, 2024). Political economy dynamics and bureaucratic resistance also present barriers, demanding robust transparency measures and political will (Auld et al., 2022; Shenkoya, 2024). Resource constraints, especially power shortages, impede digital platform operations. Unlike Singapore and Estonia, Nigeria requires integrating renewable energy technologies (RETs), including innovative options like microsonic energy devices (MSEDs), for resilient, off-grid deployments (Adebanji et al., 2023; Africa Global News, 2025). Citizen engagement frameworks in Nigeria require emphasis to foster inclusiveness and trust, accommodating diverse linguistic, cultural, and socio-economic groups (Haesevoets et al., 2024). South Africa is advancing smart/digitalised grid and renewable energy integration initiatives, including distributed generation, smart inverters and RE-specific grid codes to improve reliability and power quality, while planning large-scale renewable additions to support its strained grid (Dzobo et al., 2024; Mbungu et al., 2020; Thopil et al., 2018).

Nigeria's chronic energy deficit undermines digital governance ambitions, as the reliability of AI and blockchain platforms is precarious without sustainable energy solutions (International Energy Agency, 2024). Solar PV adoption has emerged as a viable renewable intervention, particularly in rural areas (Adebanji et al., 2023; Champion Newspapers, 2025). Combining solar with wind or biomass enhances system reliability, though implementation faces financing and regulatory delays (Ekpotu et al., 2024; Adebanji et al., 2023). MSEDs offer potential to leapfrog energy deficits, but require rigorous validation and integration with governance technologies (Africa Global News, 2025; Obuseh et al., 2025). Thus, Nigeria should pursue a hybridized smart governance model, leveraging lessons from Estonia, Singapore and Rwanda, while innovating adaptive strategies to navigate its unique complexities (Kaiser et al., 2024; Adeniyi and Okusi, 2024).

Empirical and conceptual studies increasingly support the establishment of a pragmatic and dynamic ISGT model that aligns with international AI ethics frameworks, such as the European Union (EU) AI Act and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recommendations. Systematic reviews and cross-jurisdictional analyses show that effective AI governance requires moving beyond high-level principles to actionable, context-specific frameworks that embed ethical values like transparency, accountability, fairness, privacy, and inclusivity into both policy and practice (Ashok et al., 2022; Celsi and Zomaya, 2025; Ahmad et al., 2024; Ukeje et al., 2025). For example, a global review of AI ethics frameworks highlights the need for ontological models that address digital ethics across cognitive, information, and governance domains, echoing the EU AI Act's risk-based, rights-focused approach and UNESCO's emphasis on human rights and social justice (Ashok et al., 2022; Celsi and Zomaya, 2025; Erman and Furendal, 2022).

Nigeria's National Urban Development Policy (NUDP) and emerging Smart City Initiatives provide a strategic context for implementing the ISGT and FIREs-TIDTPS models. The NUDP emphasizes the creation of inclusive, resilient, and environmentally sustainable cities through integrated governance, digital infrastructure, and energy efficiency. Complementing this, Nigeria's Smart City Framework piloted in Lagos, Abuja, and Enugu promotes data-driven urban management, renewable energy adoption, and citizen-centered e-services. These works emphasize the importance of infrastructure integration, environmental sustainability, efficient governance, and social inclusivity as key drivers for sustainable smart city initiatives (Bello et al., 2024; Zubairu, 2020; Unegbu et al., 2024). Nigeria's Smart City Initiatives, including pilot projects in Lagos and Abuja, are documented as efforts to promote data-driven urban management, renewable energy adoption, and citizen-centered e-services. These initiatives rely heavily on ICT, geospatial technologies, and stakeholder engagement to transform urban centers into more efficient and responsive cities (Bandauko and Arku, 2022; Agboola et al., 2023). These policies align with the study's focus on AI-enabled governance, decentralized renewable systems, and participatory digital platforms, reinforcing national priorities for sustainable urban transformation. This alignment is consistent with SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities and SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy.

Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) are vital for improving Nigeria's public service infrastructure, particularly in light of persistent energy challenges such as grid unreliability and disparities in energy access. This is especially pronounced in rural and peri-urban areas where RETs provide decentralized, resilient power sources essential for digital governance tools and public amenities. Among these technologies, microsonic energy devices (MSEDs) offer a groundbreaking approach to energy generation, potentially transforming how energy is accessed and utilized in Nigeria.

MSEDs, pioneered by Zimbabwean inventor Maxwell Chikumbutso, harness ambient radio-frequency (RF) signals present in the environment, converting these electromagnetic waves into usable electrical energy. This technology operates without the need for batteries, fuel, or charging infrastructure, making it a compelling solution for energy-deficit regions. As highlighted by Africa Global News (2025), Chikumbutso's Renewable-Energy Vehicle operates solely on ambient RF energy, representing a fundamentally new source of clean energy that could revolutionize transportation and energy generation.

The microsonic device circumvents the intermittency issues associated with conventional renewable sources like solar and wind by tapping into a consistent energy reservoir, including waves generated by celestial bodies (Uplifting Africa, 2025). Its core technology comprises Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) and custom transformers, which amplify and convert low-voltage signals into usable electricity. Chikumbutso likens this innovation to Nikola Tesla's early concepts of wireless power transmission, stating that it actualizes Tesla's theories on frequency transformers (Waking Times, 2021). Empirical evaluations claim energy output beyond battery capacity, yet scientific scrutiny remains skeptical, citing apparent violations of thermodynamics and classifying GPM (Greener Power Machine) as a “perpetual motion” device (Gamble, 2020).

Independent tests documented in the documentary Gamble (2020) have corroborated claims about the MSED's capabilities, showing it powered a welding machine longer than expected, indicating it draws energy from an unknown source. Gamble (2020) states, “We observed the machine not only outlasted the expected battery life, but the batteries were still fully charged, proving that the device is being powered from an unknown energy source,” showcasing its capability to capture and utilize ambient RF energy. However, the scientific community remains divided. Critics question the device's ability to defy thermodynamic laws, while supporters view it as a breakthrough in harnessing underutilized physical phenomena (PRNigeria, 2025). Rigorous peer-reviewed testing is crucial for broader acceptance of this technology.

Environmental, technological, and legal challenges are particularly prominent in Nigeria, and addressing basic needs such as poverty reduction is seen as a prerequisite for meaningful smart city transformation (Aghimien et al., 2020; Nkwunonwo et al., 2022). In Nigeria, where over 85 million people lack reliable electricity, MSEDs present a compelling solution to the country's chronic energy issues (International Energy Agency, 2024). Conventional renewable technologies face significant infrastructural and financial barriers, making decentralized innovations particularly attractive for accelerating rural electrification and supporting digital governance ecosystems (Obuseh et al., 2025). The off-grid, battery-free operation of MSEDs aligns well with the needs of underserved rural communities and public sector facilities, enabling them to operate independently of the unreliable grid.

Integrating microsonic devices into Nigeria's renewable energy strategy complements national efforts to diversify energy sources. Innovation-driven renewable energy strategies and digitalization are central to sustainable and inclusive energy transitions in Nigeria (Nwaiwu, 2021; Okafor et al., 2025), while Nigeria's Energy Transition Plan emphasizes diversified, locally appropriate renewable energy pathways supported by targeted policy and infrastructure upgrades (Ekpotu et al., 2024). Existing solar PV and hybrid systems have already proven to be modular and scalable, capable of supporting the ICT infrastructures necessary for Digital Era Governance (DEG). Although there is strong recognition of solar energy's potential, infrastructural and financial constraints continue to limit its broader adoption (Adebanji et al., 2023). Modular solar, hybrid solutions, and the emerging microsonic devices offer scalable options adaptable to various institutional sizes and geographic contexts. This adaptability allows for tailored deployments that meet specific service demands, supporting initiatives such as the EU-funded Nigeria Solar for Health Program (Champion Newspapers, 2025).

Scholarly research supports the model's core arguments (see Figure 1) by highlighting the evolution of governance paradigms in Nigeria and the transformative role of technology integration and capacity building.

Scholarly research supports the model's core arguments (see Figure 1), emphasizing the evolution of governance paradigms in Nigeria's urban context and the transformative potential of technology integration and capacity building in achieving sustainable city management. Studies on digital governance and smart-city transitions highlight how adopting AI-driven systems, renewable energy solutions, and data-enabled decision-making can strengthen institutional performance, enhance transparency, and foster citizen participation. Studies show that traditional bureaucratic systems (Old Public Administration) are often hampered by inefficiencies, legacy systems, and limited citizen engagement, which undermine public trust and service delivery (Ikeanyibe et al., 2017; Yagboyaju and Akinola, 2019; Momoh et al., 2025). The shift toward New Public Management (NPM) and New Public Service (NPS) paradigms is advocated to promote transparency, efficiency, and participatory governance, aligning with SDG 16.6 and 16.7 (Ikeanyibe et al., 2017; Momoh et al., 2025). Empirical evidence demonstrates that community participation, capacity building, and the use of digital tools significantly enhance accountability, project sustainability, and responsiveness in governance, especially when barriers such as low awareness and inadequate infrastructure are addressed (Awoonor, 2025; Adeyeye and Aladesanmi, 2011; Mohammed and Bardai, 2024).

Technology integration through AI, digitalization, and renewable energy has been shown to improve decision-making, reduce corruption, and drive organizational efficiency, but its success depends on robust governance frameworks and investment in skills development (Oladeinde et al., 2024; Adeyeye and Aladesanmi, 2011; Essien et al., 2025). Capacity building, including targeted training and re-skilling, is repeatedly identified as essential for supporting reform and equipping public servants to adapt to new technologies and governance models (Nnaji et al., 2023; Mohammed and Bardai, 2024; Awoonor, 2025; Essien et al., 2025; Nnaji et al., 2026). The convergence of these elements leads to improved accountability, enhanced efficiency, better decision-making, and the promotion of sustainable practices, directly supporting the SDGs and the model's outcomes (Awoonor, 2025; Oladeinde et al., 2024; Momoh et al., 2025; Essien et al., 2025).

Scholarly perspectives on governance transformation in Nigeria emphasize that political economy factors such as the distribution of power, elite interests, and institutional dynamics are central to understanding both progress and persistent challenges. The “veto players” theory, for example, demonstrates that Nigeria's policy-making is often shaped by powerful actors who can block or dilute reforms, leading to a trade-off: while more veto players may reduce corruption, they can also slow or complicate national decision-making and the delivery of public goods (Dube, 2019). Elite theory research further reveals that, despite structural changes since democratization, Nigeria's political elite have shown limited innovation or transformation toward good governance, with entrenched interests and institutional inertia impeding reform (Yagboyaju and Akinola, 2019; Kifordu, 2022).

Scholars argue that governance failures in Nigeria are not simply due to resource constraints or technical issues, but are deeply rooted in the self-interest and priorities of political leadership, which often override the public good (Yagboyaju and Akinola, 2019; Ivorgba, 2024). This is reflected in persistent issues such as corruption, weak state capacity, and the prioritization of private or local interests over national development. Practical experiences from donor-led governance programs, such as the UK's DFID, show that adopting a “thinking and working politically” approach one that explicitly accounts for Nigeria's political economy can create “islands of effectiveness,” but systemic transformation remains difficult without broader shifts in power relations and incentives (Williams et al., 2019).

Recent scholarship also highlights the importance of socially embedded governance models that recognize the role of informal networks, local actors, and the need for accountability and transparency beyond technocratic solutions (Idike et al., 2019; Roelofs, 2023). Thus, integrating power and political economy theories into governance reform models is seen as essential for realism and policy relevance, as these perspectives illuminate why reforms succeed or fail and how sustainable change can be achieved in the Nigerian context (Dube, 2019; Kifordu, 2022).

The proposed ISGT and the FFIREs-TIDTPS provide a holistic approach for advancing sustainable urban management and smart-city development in Nigeria. See Table 1 for the summary of theories and analytical frameworks for sustainable smart governance in Nigeria and their policy implications. By integrating AI-driven decision-making systems, blockchain-enabled transparency, and renewable energy technologies (RETs), these models address critical challenges in municipal governance, including inefficient service delivery, unreliable power supply, and weak citizen engagement.

In urban contexts, these frameworks facilitate energy-secure e-governance platforms, real-time data analytics for infrastructure management, and inclusive digital participation. They enable cities such as Lagos, Abuja, and Port Harcourt to transition toward smart, resilient, and low-carbon governance systems that align with SDG 7, SDG 16, and SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities. Thus, the models bridge governance innovation, urban energy transition, and technological inclusion to transform city administration and enhance citizen wellbeing.

The target population comprised public institutions operating across federal, state, and municipal (local-city-level) administrations, yielding 642 valid responses from diverse organizational contexts. To ensure the acquisition of high-quality, specialized data from this population, the study adopted a purposive, multi-stage sampling strategy. This approach is consistent with global best practices in governance and smart city research, where access to information-rich respondents is essential for understanding complex institutional dynamics (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018). Participants were intentionally selected based on their institutional roles, professional expertise, and direct involvement in public service delivery, digital governance, urban planning, or energy management. The sampling frame spanned federal, state, and municipal levels to capture governance dynamics across Nigeria's decentralized administrative tiers. For the qualitative strand, key informant interviews and focus groups specifically targeted senior administrators, policy advisers, ICT managers, and energy officers whose experiential knowledge enabled an in-depth exploration of institutional constraints. This purposive approach prioritizes analytical depth and contextual validity over simple statistical representativeness, ensuring that the findings reflect the perspectives of those driving innovation readiness within the Nigerian public service.

Prior to analysis, all survey data underwent systematic screening to ensure accuracy, completeness, and analytical reliability. Responses were examined for inconsistencies, duplicate entries, and excessive non-response. Cases with substantial missing data beyond an established threshold were excluded using listwise deletion, a method widely accepted in large-sample governance research when missingness is non-systematic (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2019). Sporadic missing values were assessed to ensure they did not bias key variables or distort inferential outcomes. Data cleaning procedures also involved consistency checks across related variables and validation of scale responses to confirm logical coherence. These steps ensured that the final dataset reflected high-quality, analyzable information, preserving statistical power while maintaining methodological rigor.

To measure the overall technological maturity of the participating institutions, a Technology Adoption Index (TAI) was constructed. The index utilizes a composite scoring logic based on the 17 key adoption statements detailed in the survey instrument. Variable selection was guided by the theoretical constructs of “Trialability,” “Observability,” and “Relative Advantage” from the Diffusion of Innovations theory. Scaling involved 5-point Likert items, which were then aggregated using a simple additive weighting method to provide a mean maturity score for each institution. This aggregation logic allows for a standardized comparison across federal, state, and municipal tiers, transforming individual perceptions into a quantifiable metric of institutional innovation readiness. The resulting index serves as the primary dependent variable for the inferential analyses conducted in this study.

Data were collected through a structured questionnaire covering technology adoption, perceived enablers and barriers, and socio-economic outcomes. The survey instrument was systematically designed to operationalize the core constructs of smart governance and institutional capacity. Drawing on established scales, the questionnaire comprised five structured sections measuring: (i) Artificial Intelligence adoption, (ii) blockchain utilization, (iii) renewable energy integration, (iv) institutional readiness, and (v) perceived barriers. Each construct was measured using 5-point Likert-type items to capture respondents' perceptions and levels of institutional maturity. Items were contextualized to reflect Nigeria's public sector realities while retaining conceptual alignment with the Diffusion of Innovations (DoI) theory and the Resource-Based View (RBV). The instrument was reviewed by domain experts and pre-tested to ensure content validity. A summarized version of this instrument, including representative items, is provided in Supplementary Appendix A to enhance scholarly transparency and replicability. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) summarized respondents' characteristics and levels of technology adoption. Inferential analyses included chi-square tests to examine associations between categorical variables, independent-samples t-tests to compare mean adoption scores across institutional levels, and Pearson correlation analysis to assess relationships between key governance and technology adoption indicators. All statistical tests were conducted at a 5% significance level. The assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were assessed prior to analysis, and results were interpreted conservatively where assumptions were borderline. The study employed a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Each statistical test was explicitly linked to the research questions to ensure analytical coherence.

Qualitative data from interviews and focus groups were analyzed using a hybrid inductive/deductive thematic analysis approach. Deductive coding was informed by the study's theoretical framework, while inductive coding allowed unanticipated themes to emerge from participants' narratives. The process involved iterative readings, open coding, theme refinement, and cross-validation across data sources. Analytical rigor was enhanced through reflexive memoing and systematic comparisons of interview and focus group insights. Themes were consolidated based on recurrence and explanatory power, aligning with international qualitative research standards to enhance the dependability and transferability of the findings. This research addresses the ethical complexities of AI-enabled governance by incorporating algorithmic transparency and accountability into our framework. We acknowledge risks such as data privacy breaches and algorithmic bias, which could marginalize vulnerable populations. Emphasizing “Responsible AI” governance, we prioritize citizen consent as essential for digital trust, aligning our study with international norms on digital ethics and responsible public sector innovation.

A total of 642 valid survey responses were collected, representing a response rate of 91.7% from the targeted sample size of 700.

The sample is balanced with a majority male representation and fairly distributed age groups, reflecting Nigeria's public sector demographics. Education levels skewed toward tertiary qualifications, appropriate for technology adoption studies (Table 2).

The results indicate varying levels of adoption across technologies. AI-driven administrative processes show moderate adoption (Mean = 3.02), suggesting institutions are progressively integrating AI into operations. Blockchain systems record the lowest uptake with a low to moderate adoption score (Mean = 2.64), reflecting slow integration and possible structural or regulatory challenges. Renewable energy technologies demonstrate the strongest adoption level with a moderate adoption score (Mean = 3.17), highlighting a relatively higher commitment to sustainable infrastructure compared to digital systems.

Strong positive correlations among perceptions of political will, incentives, training, institutional coordination, and actual technology adoption affirm the centrality of coordinated policy and institutional support for FIREs-TIDTPS scalability.

All policy perception variables are significant independent predictors of adoption. Political commitment, incentives, training, and coordination collectively underpin scalable integrated AI and RET adoption across institutional tiers. Analysis revealed a significant positive association between these policy-related factors and adoption status. Logistic regression confirmed that high political commitment notably increased the likelihood of technology integration. These findings underscore the critical role of supportive policy environments and coordinated implementation strategies in scaling sustainable digital governance nationwide.

This analysis investigates the adoption of advanced technologies specifically Artificial Intelligence (AI), blockchain, and Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) within Nigeria's public service sector. The study, which involved 642 valid responses from federal, state, and local institutions, reveals moderate adoption levels for AI (Mean ≈ 3.02) and RETs (Mean ≈ 3.17), while blockchain adoption is notably low (Mean ≈ 2.64). Key barriers identified include a lack of digital skills, weak energy infrastructure, and limited government incentives. Positive governance outcomes were observed, with correlations indicating improvements in transparency (Mean = 3.15), efficiency (Mean = 3.17), and citizen engagement (Mean = 3.09; Table 3). These findings align with several SDGs, particularly SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) and SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure). Political commitment emerged as a crucial driver of adoption, confirmed by statistical analysis.

To enhance technology integration and urban sustainability, the study recommends the implementation of the Integrated Smart Governance Transformation (ISGT) model (Figure 1). This framework addresses the complex challenges facing Nigeria's urban public service systems by promoting regulatory support for evaluating and adopting innovative renewable energy technologies, including emerging solutions such as microsonic energy devices. It emphasizes inclusive participation, phased implementation, and capacity building to strengthen efficiency, transparency, and citizen welfare at the city level. By overcoming systemic governance and infrastructural barriers, Nigerian cities can harness digital and renewable innovations to achieve smart, resilient, and sustainable urban governance aligned with SDGs 7, 11, and 16 (see Tables 4, 5, 6).

The thematic analysis highlights critical barriers and enablers shaping the adoption of advanced technologies within Nigeria's urban public service systems. Overcoming resistance to change, enhancing digital literacy among city administrators, strengthening urban infrastructure and energy reliability, establishing ethical and accountability frameworks, and ensuring consistent political support are essential for fostering an environment conducive to smart innovation. This multidimensional approach is vital for transforming municipal governance, improving urban service delivery, and advancing sustainable, technology-driven cities in line with SDG 7, SDG 11, and SDG 16.

While this study provides valuable insights into the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI), digitalization, and Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) for sustainable urban governance in Nigeria, certain limitations should be acknowledged. First, the research relied on self-reported data from public officials, which may introduce perceptual bias and the risk of social desirability, where respondents might overestimate institutional progress or technology adoption levels. To mitigate this in the future, research should aim to triangulate survey data with objective administrative records and system logs. Second, the study's cross-sectional design limits its ability to capture the long-term impacts of digital and renewable energy integration across urban systems.

Third, resource and accessibility constraints restricted the study to selected institutions and cities. Consequently, the findings exhibit an inherent urban bias and are primarily representative of formal, high-capacity institutional environments. Given the significant digital divide in Nigeria, these results may not fully generalize to rural or informal governance contexts where infrastructure and digital literacy levels differ substantially. Future studies should therefore focus on these underserved regions to provide a more holistic national perspective. Additionally, the rapid evolution of AI and renewable energy technologies means that the findings reflect a specific technological moment and may require periodic updating. Future research should employ longitudinal and comparative designs to validate the proposed ISGT and FIREs-TIDTPS models and examine their applicability across different urban settings in the Global South.