Urban development has undergone significant transformations over the centuries, driven by industrialization, technological advancements, and changing social and economic conditions, among other factors. In Europe, the Roman concept of “rus in urbe,” or countryside created within a building or city, was an early integration of natural landscapes into urban environments. In South Asia, the ancient towns in the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent exemplify early urban planning incorporating nature (Gregory, 2008). This includes traditional water harvesting structures and sustainable water management (Sharma, 2006). Mesopotamian and Persian civilizations notably exemplified by Persian gardens from sixth century BC Achaemenid dynasty, integrated green spaces into their landscapes for aesthetic, climatic and spiritual purposes, often representing paradise (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2025). Early advancements in urban sanitation infrastructure were excavated at Mohenjo-daro (2600–1800 BC) in present-day Pakistan (Jansen, 1985). Pre-industrial green spaces in Europe were often tied to aristocratic estates, religious institutions, or communal lands, such as Paris' Luxembourg Gardens established in the early seventeenth century and London's 142-hectare Hyde Park, established in the sixteenth century, which was initially developed for private hunting purposes (Self, 2014) before it was opened to the public in the following century (Porter, 1995). The gardens of Schönbrunn Palace is another example of an early urban green space, dating back to the fourteenth century, originally planned as a hunting ground, and later opened for public usage in the eighteenth century (Schönbrunn, 2025).

Rapid urbanization during the Industrial Revolution led to the widespread replacement of natural landscapes with gray infrastructure: roads, buildings, and engineered drainage systems. While this contributed to economic development, it also resulted in significant environmental challenges, including air and water pollution, UHI, and the loss of green spaces. Some cities developed public parks as an attempt to address overcrowding and poor living conditions, including New York's Central Park and Sefton Park in Liverpool. There are also many historic examples of the recognition of the benefits of green pockets for the health and wellbeing of the local community, in smaller cities and towns. One such example is the 4 acres of St Thomas Leisure Ground in Exeter, opened on 30th March 1891 for Queen Victoria's Jubilee, at the instigation of the Local Board of Health (Devon Gardens Trust, 2025).

In the early twentieth century, the Garden City movement advocated for the integration of green elements within planned urban developments, such as green belts and parks (Howard, 1902). At the same time, many Western cities underwent a transition toward a car-centric urban development model as automobile ownership rates increased. In the United States, car registrations tripled from 8 million to 26 million between 1920 and 1930 (Gavanas, 2024). This resulted in urban sprawl, with many cities expanding their road networks significantly by the 1950s (Barrington-Leigh and Millard-Ball, 2015). Initiatives to rebalance rapid urbanization with ecological stewardship followed (Mumford, 1938). The 1960s and 1970s brought a renewed focus on urban greening, driven by environmental concerns, the degradation of urban environments and legislative pressure, including the establishment in the USA of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and the passage of the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act. A significant shift in urban planning philosophy manifested advocating for the integration of natural systems and a closer collaboration between urban designers and scientists (McHarg, 1969). The eco-urbanism movement of the 1980s put a renewed focus on nature as greening, and the 1990s to early 2000s brought growing concern over human and urban pressures on ecosystems, with the emerging concepts of green infrastructure and ecosystem services (Di Marino et al., 2023).

Today, over three-quarters of global cities have adopted urban greening policies, integrating sustainability with urban growth (Khamdamov and Usmanov, 2024). As cities worldwide grapple with the challenges of climate change, pollution, and declining biodiversity, urban greening has emerged as a key strategy for building urban resilience and enhancing liveability. Studies show that greater green space availability is associated with better health outcomes such as lower mortality rates and improved mental health and sleep quality (Galitskaya et al., 2024). A green coverage between 10% and 20% has shown measurable health advantages (Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2017). Neighborhoods maintaining at least 30% tree canopy coverage demonstrate significant improvements in mental, physical, and social health, as emphasized by the “3–30–300 rule” (Konijnendijk, 2023). The 3–30–300 rule offers clear urban greening guidelines, setting three minimum standards: (i) every citizen should be able to see at least three trees from their home, (ii) their neighborhood should have 30% tree canopy cover; and (iii) they should not live more than 300 m away from the nearest public park or green space.

In recent decades, urban greening has gained significant recognition for its importance for people's wellbeing, improving quality of life, and building sustainable cities (Di Marino et al., 2023). As topics such as climate resilience, environmental justice, and community engagement have become more prominent within built environment discourse, urban greening has emerged as a core element of sustainable and resilient urban planning. Urban planners and policymakers have embraced this concept, incorporating GBGI and NbS into their strategies, with GBGI exemplifying a multifunctional approach by integrating vegetation, water bodies, and built environment elements to create sustainable urban spaces.

Today, over 130 countries have incorporated NbS actions in their nationally determined SDG contributions, complementing technology-based solutions, including in urban contexts (IUCN, 2016). In relation to this, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources's Global Standard for NbS consolidates ecosystem-based approaches aligning urban greening strategies with SDGs (IUCN, 2020).

Various urban greening initiatives worldwide are aiming to address climate risks, SDGs, improving public health, and enhancing ecological sustainability. Examples are presented in chronological order of references:

Copenhagen's Cloudburst Management Plan: A city-wide strategy designed to manage extreme rainfall events through the use of green roofs, permeable surfaces, and green corridors, which also enhances urban aesthetics and air quality (The City of Copenhagen, 2012).

Collectively, such initiatives highlight a fundamental shift in urban planning, where green spaces are not seen as mere decorative elements but as crucial infrastructure for resilience and wellbeing. Cities worldwide are adopting innovative solutions to address urban challenges, including the integration of green roofs and vertical gardens, in the context of urban resilience and adaptation planning (Saqib et al., 2024).

Urban greening is expected to become increasingly data-driven, leveraging technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), artificial intelligence (AI), and remote sensing to optimize the design and management of green infrastructure (Stessens et al., 2021; Rahmati, 2024). These tools will enable built environment professionals (e.g., landscape architects, developers, city planners) to more effectively assess environmental needs, target adaptation options, model the impact of greening interventions, and monitor the effectiveness of urban green spaces in a holistic way. Future urban greening will integrate Internet of Things (IoT), AI, and real-time analytics for smart water management, optimizing flow, and drainage efficiency (Langenheim et al., 2022). Digital twin technology and AI-driven planning will enable real-time simulations and optimized GBGI and SuDS (Dembski et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2024). Advanced permeable pavements and bioengineered materials will enhance infiltration and pollutant filtration, leveraging nanotechnology for contaminant absorption (Verma et al., 2024). In addition to technologically driven future approaches, there is also an increasing emphasis on citizen/community engagement in urban planning processes, however addressing structural barriers and ensuring meaningful participation remain ongoing challenges (Sondou et al., 2025).

Green finance, corporate sustainability and decision-making processes that are informed by a comprehensive economic valuation of the net benefits of urban greening (including its environmental, social, and health benefits), are also expected to play an important role in shaping the next phase of urban greening (Williams et al., 2025; Tefera et al., 2023). Policies promoting investment in green bonds, environmental, social, and governance (ESG) frameworks, and public–private partnerships are expected to accelerate large-scale greening projects. Additionally, smaller-scale community-led urban greening initiatives will be vital to ensuring that cities remain inclusive, mitigating the risk of “green gentrification,” where the introduction of urban green spaces inadvertently displaces low-income residents due to rising property values.

Finally, as climate change intensifies, urban greening strategies will need to be resilient and adaptive. Cities will need to focus on climate-resilient landscaping considering their micro-climatic conditions, for example, selecting appropriate drought-resistant plant species, water-sensitive urban designs, and ecological corridors that promote biodiversity. Urban agriculture, vertical gardens or farms, and rooftop farms are also expected to gain prominence, addressing both food security and environmental sustainability in growing urban populations (Drottberger et al., 2023).

The following curated selection of 10 case studies, presented in alphabetical order of the name of city, has been drawn from authors' recommendations and discussions at the RECLAIM Network Plus Conference (http://www.reclaim-network.org):

The 10 case studies of successful projects offer valuable lessons for enhancing urban living through NbS, highlighting the importance of active community involvement, integrated urban design, and long-term sustainability in creating climate-resilient urban spaces. Innovative approaches, including transforming existing buildings into green spaces, further demonstrate the potential for integrating nature into densely built environments. These successful strategies provide insights for cities worldwide to develop context-specific, innovative solutions for more climate-resilient urban spaces.

The longevity of well-designed green spaces is exemplified by the UK's urban parks, such as St. Thomas People's Park in Exeter, established in 1891 (Exeter Memories, 2009). Originally created as a safe space for children and vulnerable people, the park continues to serve the local community over a century later, underscoring the importance of sustainable design in GBGI projects.

Maximizing the public health benefits of GBGI projects requires effective cross-sector collaboration. In Surrey, efforts to integrate public health expertise into environmental initiatives have shown promise, with general practitioners engaging in discussions about air pollution and climate change (Zero Carbon Guildford, 2025). However, these efforts often remain isolated highlighting the need for greater coordination to address overarching priorities such as health inequalities and community empowerment.

To enhance GBGI project effectiveness, public health practitioners should be involved in co-creation and planning stages, while challenges persist, including limited financial and human resources. Research from Cardiff Council and Vale University Health Board area has revealed that air pollution disproportionately affects poorer areas (Cardiff Council, 2025), emphasizing the need to align GBGI projects with public health priorities. Overcoming these barriers requires a coordinated approach that integrates public health as a primary driver of greening initiatives, rather than a secondary co-benefit, ensuring that urban planning prioritizes both environmental and health outcomes.

Urban greening strategies, such as GBGI and NbS offer long-term economic benefits such as reduced healthcare costs, energy savings, and improved property values. However, high upfront costs for land acquisition, infrastructure development, maintenance and misconceptions deter both public and private investment (Riedman et al., 2022; Rowley et al., 2022). Municipal budgets are often stretched, and many greening initiatives rely on single-source or short-term funding, limiting their long-term viability (C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, 2022).

Government budgets and grants typically cover only capital costs for urban greening projects, excluding or providing limited-term funding for ongoing maintenance and operational expenses only. Consequently, many projects face neglect due to insufficient resources for routine upkeep, resulting in degraded green spaces that fail to achieve their intended outcomes (Albro, 2020).

Establishing sustainable funding mechanisms, such as public-private partnerships, green bonds, and community-led stewardship programmes, can help address the challenge of maintaining urban greening over time (Nash et al., 2021). Importantly, green and surface-based climate adaptations are likely cheaper to implement than large traditional gray infrastructure projects like sewer expansions (Xu et al., 2021). To encourage continuing public investment, it is crucial to demonstrate the financial rewards of NbS, particularly in terms of climate change resilience for issues like flooding.

The health benefits associated with NbS provide another compelling argument for urban greening initiatives, especially when addressing air quality and heat stress. While general wellbeing improvements may be subjective, quantifying health costs related to these issues and assessing potential cost reductions through environmental improvements can justify financial investments in urban greening. Techniques to quantify the economic value of ecosystem services provided by urban green infrastructure (Mell et al., 2016; Jones et al., 2019; Fletcher et al., 2021) can position these solutions as cost-effective approaches to building climate resilience, while offering a dual benefit of improved public health and enhanced urban sustainability (Elmqvist et al., 2015).

Innovative financing mechanisms can provide solutions to these challenges. For example, green bonds, corporate ESG funding, crowdfunding, and public–private partnerships (PPPs) offer possible solutions to ensure long-term investment. Green bonds provide a structured financial tool for municipalities and businesses to raise capital for environmental projects, while corporate ESG funding encourages businesses to invest in urban greening as part of their sustainability commitments. In particular, PPPs can help to distribute financial risk while leveraging private sector efficiency and public sector oversight (Naumann et al., 2011). Crowdfunding platforms raise small contributions for urban greening projects like tree planting and parks. Social impact funds and blended finance combine public, private, and philanthropic investments for social and environmental returns, as seen in the World Bank's Urban Resilience Fund (World Bank, 2015). Green Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) finance eco-friendly real estate with integrated green spaces (Hin Ho et al., 2013). Utility-backed financing reinvests savings from reduced water, energy, or stormwater costs into green infrastructure. Additionally, cities can introduce incentives such as tax breaks or subsidies for developers who incorporate greening elements into their projects. Establishing dedicated municipal budgets for urban greening and integrating it into broader urban resilience plans ensures that green infrastructure is not treated as an afterthought but as a critical component of sustainable city planning. Finally, training programs for local communities in green space management and ecological restoration can create job opportunities while fostering a culture of environmental stewardship.

Economic valuation is crucial for effective urban greening and management, requiring comprehensive decision-support tools that accurately assess both benefits and costs. Such tools can guide policymakers in determining optimal quantities, locations, and species of plants, while balancing urban greening with infrastructure development. Current frameworks fall short in capturing the full spectrum of benefits, including improved air quality, carbon storage, water management, energy efficiency, and public health (Tefera et al., 2023). Consequently, sustainable greening costs often seem to outweigh benefits, stemming from inadequate long-term benefit accounting, limited predictive modeling capabilities, and insufficient reliable data. Addressing these challenges is essential for making informed urban greening decisions that create more sustainable and liveable cities.

Fragmented governance structures, unclear policies, and bureaucratic delays hinder the planning and execution of urban greening projects. Multiple agencies, including local governments, urban planners, environmental departments, and private developers, often operate independently, leading to siloed decision-making and slow project approvals. For example, policies such as the UK's Greening Policy, which aims for 40% green cover in urban residential areas (Natural England, 2023), may struggle with enforcement due to the limited capacity of local authorities. Similarly, at the local scale, initiatives like the Guildford Borough Council's goal to double Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) from the standard 10% to 20% encounter implementation challenges, as biodiversity policies are established at the county level but enforced by district and borough councils. Similar issues arise with other planning commitments, such as affordable housing and green infrastructure, which are often approved but not delivered due to cost and regulatory constraints. Addressing these challenges requires strategic planning, supportive policy frameworks, strengthening coordination among stakeholders, streamlining approval processes, and enhancing policy frameworks that actively promote urban greening.

Large city-scale urban greening should adopt agile management approaches that allow for flexibility and continuous improvement based on environmental and social feedback. Thus, urban greening should be embedded within broader climate adaptation plans to enhance resilience against environmental challenges such as heat waves, floods, and pollution. By aligning greening efforts with broader urban resilience strategies, cities can maximize the impact of adaptation options and ensure long-term sustainability. Governments should enforce green infrastructure requirements, such as BNG, green roofs, urban forests, and permeable surfaces in new developments. Strengthening urban greening legislation at national and local levels ensures that towns and cities can prioritize sustainable development over short-term economic gains.

Reducing bureaucratic delays and improving coordination between local governments, environmental agencies, and developers can accelerate project implementation. However, challenges in enforcing green infrastructure commitments can arise due to under-resourced planning departments. For instance, Surrey County Council, responsible for the local nature recovery strategy including a goal of planting 1.2 million trees, faced such difficulties in executing their green initiatives effectively (SCC, 2021).

Urban morphology plays a crucial role in determining the spatial extent and types of greening strategies that can be effectively implemented in cities (Owen et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2024a,b). As urban areas expand, limited land availability forces green infrastructure to compete with development, making it crucial to plan ahead rather than retrofitting later. Existing urban structures, high costs, and regulatory barriers often constrain the implementation of green spaces, particularly when retrofitting developed areas. These challenges are compounded by the fact that stakeholders, such as shop owners and local communities, may have minimal influence over decisions regarding GBGI projects, especially in town centers.

To overcome these space constraints, urban planners must adopt innovative approaches and technologies. Integrating vertical gardens, rooftop gardens, green corridors, and pocket parks can maximize the use of limited space in developed areas. However, these solutions require strategic design to ensure they maximize ecological and social benefits without compromising urban functionality. Furthermore, urban planning strategies need to shift toward prioritizing multifunctional land use that balances development with environmental sustainability.

Effective implementation of GBGI solutions requires a holistic approach. This includes the ability to quantify the cost–benefit of green infrastructure compared to traditional gray solutions, considering both immediate and long-term impacts. Moreover, it is essential to incorporate the “voice” and needs of local communities in GBGI interventions, whether in existing urban areas or new developments. By involving stakeholders in the decision-making process and adopting innovative planning strategies, cities can more effectively address space constraints and create sustainable, liveable urban environments that benefit both residents and the ecosystem.

Regarding green space distribution, community engagement is crucial (Riedman et al., 2022). It ensures that the focus extends beyond merely achieving percentage targets of green area coverage in a given region. Instead, it emphasizes placing appropriate solutions in strategic locations. The physical impacts of green spaces are spatially linked, diminishing with distance. Solely examining citywide percentages of green spaces may obscure the fact that benefits are not uniformly experienced across the entire urban landscape. Therefore, a targeted and communicative approach helps distribute benefits more effectively, particularly to disadvantaged communities.

Community-driven initiatives, where residents are involved in the planning, maintenance, and stewardship of green spaces, can significantly enhance public support and project sustainability (Aslanoglu et al., 2025). Without proper engagement, communities may feel excluded from decision-making processes, leading to distrust and reluctance to support greening efforts. Additionally, in some cases residents and businesses may oppose greening projects due to misconceptions or factual concerns about land-use changes, maintenance responsibilities, and perceived inconveniences. These could be related with concerns about green gentrification, including increased property taxes, possibilities of fallen tree limbs, changes in neighborhood aesthetics and in traffic management; all these can potentially lead to opposition from local communities (Nobles and Moore, 2024; Meenar et al., 2022).

Effective community engagement involves transparent communication, co-creating projects with local residents, and addressing concerns about land use changes. Participatory decision-making processes, including town hall meetings, co-creation workshops, and citizen-led greening programs, empower communities to take ownership of green spaces. Public participation in tree planting, park maintenance, and urban gardening has been shown to foster a sense of ownership and encourages community stewardship of green spaces (e.g., Jennings et al., 2016; Bressane et al., 2024). This not only enhances public support for urban greening but also strengthens social cohesion and long-term stewardship of these spaces. The public can also actively participate in maintaining the green space, contributing to its design, and engaging in green space science outreach initiatives. Involving diverse stakeholders, such as local governments, non-profit organizations, and private developers, ensures that greening projects receive the necessary financial and logistical support while being aligned with broader urban development goals. The collaboration with communities in co-creating solutions is essential for reflecting the needs and preferences of local residents.

Educating citizens on the environmental and health benefits provided by urban greening features such as the green spaces further reinforce the importance of urban greening (Nguyen and Chidthaisong, 2024). Schools, workplaces, and community organizations can actively promote greening initiatives, emphasizing the role individuals can play in supporting these efforts (Zhang et al., 2024). Integration of urban greening into public health initiatives can also increase awareness of their benefits and encourage behavioral changes that support greener lifestyles and green social prescribing (Kruize et al., 2019). Governments and NGOs can leverage digital platforms, citizen science initiatives, social media, and interactive workshops to engage diverse audiences and inspire collective action through established behavior change levers that include identity-based social contagion, and the use of trusted messengers, normative appeals and “shared destiny narratives.”

Urban greening initiatives must prioritize equity and inclusivity to ensure fair distribution of benefits across all communities. Socially disadvantaged groups often face disproportionate environmental challenges, making equitable access to green infrastructure crucial (Hsu et al., 2022; Richards et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2025). To address this, there is a need for: (1) Ensuring that all communities, especially low-income and marginalized groups, benefit equally from improved air quality, cooling effects, and recreational opportunities; (2) Addressing disparities by recognizing that disadvantaged communities often suffer worse environmental consequences compared with more affluent areas, and tailor interventions accordingly; (3) Mitigating gentrification by implementing policies to prevent displacement and maintain affordable housing alongside greening projects; (4) Guiding urban greening efforts with social justice considerations to create healthier, more inclusive urban environments for all residents (Anguelovski and Corbera, 2023). By incorporating these principles, cities can develop urban greening strategies that not only improve environmental quality but also promote social equity and community wellbeing.

One of the major challenges of urban greening is the risk of green gentrification, where improved environmental quality leads to increased property values, ultimately displacing low-income residents (Jelks et al., 2021). While new parks, tree-lined streets, and urban forests enhance the overall liveability of a city, they can also attract wealthier residents and investors, making housing unaffordable for marginalized communities. To counter this, policymakers must integrate greening initiatives with affordable housing policies. Rent control measures, community land trusts, and mixed-income housing developments can help ensure that existing residents are not forced out due to rising costs. Additionally, designing green spaces that cater to diverse socio-economic groups, such as multipurpose parks, community gardens, and culturally relevant recreational areas, can promote inclusivity and prevent the exclusive transformation of neighborhoods. Implementing greening guidelines such as the 3–30–300 rule can help reduce inequity of access to greenspace, and thereby avoid green gentrification, although there are substantial challenges to retrospectively achieving these targets in densely built up cities (Owen et al., 2024). Nevertheless, it remains a valuable aspiration for cities wanting to increase their greenspace, especially in residential areas.

Ensuring urban greening aligns with social and environmental justice requires prioritizing communities that historically lack access to green spaces. Low-income neighborhoods, often characterized by limited tree cover and fewer parks, experience higher temperatures, greater vulnerability to disasters, increased air pollution, and lower overall wellbeing. Greening efforts should be directed toward these areas to reduce health disparities and improve climate resilience (Rigolon et al., 2021). Public health benefits, such as reduced heat-related illnesses, improved air quality, and enhanced mental wellbeing, should be central to urban greening policies. Moreover, incorporating climate justice principles, where the needs of vulnerable populations are at the forefront of urban planning, ensures that greening efforts do not disproportionately benefit affluent areas while neglecting marginalized communities.

Equitable urban greening also requires addressing intersectional issues, such as accessibility, safety, and cultural inclusivity (Endalew Terefe and Hou, 2024). Green spaces must be designed to accommodate people of all ages, abilities, and backgrounds. Features such as wheelchair-accessible paths, shaded rest areas, and appropriately-lit public parks improve accessibility and usability for all residents. Safety concerns, particularly in marginalized neighborhoods, should be addressed through community-led monitoring programs and strategic placement of greenery to avoid creating isolated areas. Furthermore, integrating cultural elements into green spaces, such as indigenous planting practices, spaces for traditional celebrations, and art installations reflecting local heritage, enhances community identity and encourages greater use of urban greening. Where minority communities feel a sense of belonging in a local greenspace, their experiences of greenspace are often very positive (Palmer et al., 2025).

Effective GBGI design and implementation requires expertise from various fields, including urban planning, environmental science, engineering, architecture, public health, economics and social sciences (Butt and Dimitrijević, 2022). However, a lack of interdisciplinary coordination often results in disjointed efforts that fail to maximize the full potential of urban greening. For example, planners may focus on aesthetics, or succumb to pressures for more housing, without considering ecological benefits or giving ecological benefits less priority, while engineers may prioritize stormwater management, the landscape architect will value biodiversity conservation, and so on.

The diverse knowledge base required to deliver a comprehensive plan, points to the need of a project manager or other champion that is able to coordinate all the various parts into one harmonious whole (Figure 2). While ambitious targets for tree cover and green space exist, there is criticism that public health practitioners are not leading environmental and greening initiatives to the standards imposed e.g., by air pollution reduction goals. Local authorities acknowledge efforts to engage with health professionals but work often happens in silos due to resource constraints and lack of effective communications. Despite good research and monitoring, effective collaboration remains limited.

Public health should not just be a co-benefit but a driving force in greening strategies, especially as pollution and health inequalities are often concentrated in disadvantaged areas. Encouraging cross-sector collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and integrated planning approaches can lead to more holistic and effective urban greening solutions. By proactively addressing these challenges, cities can harness the full potential of green infrastructure to enhance climate resilience, biodiversity, and overall liveability for future generations.

Urban greening calls for stronger collaboration between networks to achieve ambitious targets such as 40% green cover in urban areas (Natural England, 2023). Bringing together experts from urban planning, climate science, ecology, public health, and civil engineering can help foster new and holistic solutions that address multiple urban challenges simultaneously. Considering the needs of people in greenspace planning also involves understanding how their needs change as they go about their lives in the city, locally where they live, but also where they work and travel in between. Concepts such as “people-sheds” help formalize these requirements (Jones et al., 2022b). Cities should create cross-sector partnerships among local governments, businesses, academic institutions, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to pool resources, knowledge, and expertise. Such collaborations can accelerate project implementation, enhance innovation, and ensure urban greening aligns with broader sustainability and resilience goals.

Data-driven planning plays an important role in optimizing urban greening initiatives. Technologies such as Geographic Information System, Machine learning, artificial intelligence, and availability of suitable, spatially coherent data (remote sensing, aerial imagery or satellite photography), enable spatial risk assessments at unprecedented resolution, thus enabling identification of areas most in need of green infrastructure (Fletcher et al., 2021). By harnessing these new tools, urban planners can maximize the ecological and social benefits of green spaces while ensuring efficient resource allocation. AI techniques have been applied to optimize green-blue infrastructure for climate resilience, analyzing complex environmental data to improve the design and management of green and blue spaces (Shaamala et al., 2024). Other works showed that AI-driven models coupled with publicly available satellite data can improve urban planning, resource allocation, and green blue space conservation (Hasan et al., In press). AI and multimodal datasets have the potential to help create holistic and adaptable systems that integrate green and blue infrastructure to address interconnected climate-related challenges such as flood control, biodiversity enhancement, and urban cooling (Islam M. R. et al., 2024).

The UK Met Office, for example, is committed to improving climate projections and ensuring their practical use for organizations and individuals (Met Office, 2025b). Additionally, organizations like UKRI are funding projects that generate large-scale environmental data, such as mapping the heat registry of every house in the UK to identify areas needing intervention. Ensuring that all funded research is open-source allows stakeholders, authorities and researchers to access valuable data and target interventions or research gaps. However, a major challenge lies in managing the volume of data and making it easily accessible. Addressing this requires investment in large-scale data infrastructure and smart interface solutions.

Adaptive management strategies are essential for sustaining urban greening efforts in the long run, along with monitoring and evaluation. Regular environmental assessments using remote sensing technologies, satellite imagery, and GIS mapping can help monitor the health and effectiveness of green spaces and ecosystems. These tools enable urban planners to identify areas in need of intervention, track biodiversity trends, and assess the cooling impact of different greening solutions. Integrating urban greening with climate adaptation policies, such as flood mitigation through green infrastructure, drought-resistant landscaping, and urban heat island reduction strategies, enhances the resilience of cities against climate risks. Moreover, maintaining green spaces requires sustainable funding and governance structures. Many urban greening initiatives face long-term financial challenges, particularly when initial investments are not accompanied by maintenance plans (Pearsall et al., 2024). Innovative financing mechanisms, such as green bonds, corporate social responsibility (CSR) contributions, and public–private partnerships, can help secure ongoing funding.