Nature, under modernity and industrialisation, is not something inherently “natural”; rather, it is seen as a resource for economic development and an object that can be commodified, dominated, and reconfigured to suit human needs (Escobar, 1999). Modern industrial society, devoid of reverence for the natural world, fostered a culture of exploitation–cultivating, manipulating, polluting ecosystems, and even eradicating natural resources (Duguid, 2010). As Gandhi famously stated, “Nature can cater to man’s need but cannot cater to man’s greed” This manipulation and domination of nature has resulted in unprecedented socio-ecological changes that are advancing “wicked problems” and threatening the planet’s stability and sustainability (Artmann, 2023; Muhar and Böck, 2018; Muradian and Gómez-Baggethun, 2021; Rockström et al., 2009). Current trajectories of human development necessitate radical transformations to ensure a sustainable future, as incremental adjustments are inadequate to tackle the scale and urgency of current global challenges (Markard and Truffer, 2006). In response, the discursive concept of ‘sustainability transition’ emerged from the idea that social and environmental problems demand transformative change in existing systems to more sustainable modes of production and consumption (Köhler et al., 2019; Markard et al., 2012).

Researchers studying socio-ecological systems in sustainability transitions identify human-nature division and society’s disconnection from nature as one of the root causes of current social and environmental challenges (Dorninger et al., 2017; Folke et al., 2011; Ives et al., 2018). In fact, the sustainability crisis is argued to be a crisis of the modern system of thought that imposes a dichotomous worldview ontologically separating humans from nature and generating binaries between culture/nature and human/animal (Escobar, 2008). Thus, to make radical changes in current trajectories negatively impacting the planet, an ontological shift is proposed by recognising systematic interdependence between society and nature (Folke et al., 2021) and rethinking the relational qualities of HNCs (Artmann, 2023; Escobar, 2018; Ives et al., 2017). Relational ontology emphasises that human survival and thriving are interdependent, rather than individual, acknowledging the existence of multiple worlds (pluriverse), each relational. This has sparked a growing research interest in understanding HNCs and their essential qualities as well as identifying alternative relational approaches to challenge modern dualistic and hierarchical HNCs for sustainability transitions (Vindevoghel, 2024; Beery et al., 2023; Fitzgerald and Davies, 2022; Walsh et al., 2021; West et al., 2020; Ives et al., 2018). As a result, diverse relational discourses are emerging like biophilia hypothesis (Kellert and Wilson, 2013), reconnecting to the biosphere (Folke et al., 2011), nature deficit disorder (Louv, 2008), connectedness to nature scale (Mayer and Frantz, 2004), nature relatedness (Nisbet et al., 2009), human-nature resonance (Artmann, 2023) across disciplines, addressing visions of the system associated with HNCs as ‘deep’ leverage points for transformational change.

In this context, Escobar et al. (2024) argue for a relational ontological shift in the discipline of design, given its historical role as a practice linked to anthropocentrism. Considering the values and behaviours that design objects elicit in people, influencing one’s being in the world and vice versa, it also holds significance in the consolidation of relational ontology for sustainability transition (Escobar, 2018). Designing in a relational manner involves understanding that humans are in an inextricable relationship with each other, the planet, and various nonhuman beings (Escobar et al., 2024). Aligned with this and to address current crises, the architectural discipline is also undergoing a relational shift from sustainable to socio-ecological design approaches by reframing it as a material expression of human-nature relations (Graves et al., 2019; Sitcharon and Malaque, 2023). This shift is deemed necessary because sustainable architecture has mainly focused on reducing negative impacts by improving the efficiency of existing systems, without challenging the modern utilitarian view of nature and its resources (Graves et al., 2019). Currently, where sustainable design adapts reductive approaches, socio-ecological design adapts regenerative approaches, which entail understanding flows and relationships in a site to inform design responses for enhancing the regenerative potential of a place, its people, and nature (Hes and Bush, 2022). Diverse relational design approaches like biophilic design (Errante, 2022; Kellert et al., 2013), regenerative design (Cole et al., 2013; Zingoni de Baro, 2022), multispecies design (Grobman et al., 2023), nature-based solutions (Butt, 2024; Cilliers et al., 2022), etc., are thus emerging in architecture. Of all these approaches, biophilic design is an innovative approach that has evolved and gained increased traction for restoring the inherent HNCs in the design of the built environment, further discussed in Section 2.2.

Biophilic design is an approach that recognises the low environmental-impact objectives of sustainable architecture as insufficient and seeks the long-term sustainability of restoring and increasing people’s positive relationship to nature in the built world (Kellert et al., 2013). It is a set of design strategies that attempts to translate biophilia – the inherent human affinity to affiliate with natural systems and processes—into the design of the built environment. Existing research indicates that biophilic architecture and exposure to nature and natural habitats can improve humans’ overall well-being and health, their cognitive performance, while also cultivating environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behaviour (Liu and Chen, 2021; Latini et al., 2024; Zakaria et al., 2024). Although biophilic design is considered an innovation today, ironically, it was the way buildings were designed for much of human history (Kellert et al., 2013). Vernacular architecture is a biophilic built form. It has evolved through trial and error, in integration with the natural environment; using local materials, themes, and patterns of nature for building artefacts; in connection to culture and heritage; utilising indigenous construction techniques, while addressing both tangible and intangible needs of the community (Nasir and Arif Kamal, 2021; Srivastava and Das, 2023). In fact, one of Kellert et al.’s (2013) two key dimensions of biophilic design is place-based or vernacular, with its own set of elements and attributes that enable design to be rooted in local ecology, cultural traditions, and patterns of life. The search for a socio-ecological approach to planning and design has thus led to an increasing research interest in vernacular architectural spaces with regard to their design that leverages and complements local socio-ecological factors and patterns (Alkubaisi, 2021; Sitcharon and Malaque, 2023; Tipnis and Lall, 2012).

By being site-specific—adaptive to climate and environment, self-sufficient—in natural and knowledge resources, and cost-effective—in economic and social terms (Kazimee, 2008; Philokyprou, 2018), it adheres to a unique combination of natural flows/ patterns of relationships in a place. It is also influenced by various tangible and intangible factors such as religion, beliefs, customs, philosophies, habits, regulations, building processes and ornament/symbols (Hamka and Winarni, 2021). According to Alexander (1979), the buildings of the past offer one timeless way of building in which the space is infused with quality of life through varied patterns of relationship in space, which in turn supports the patterns of events that occur therein. Thus, the life that occurs in a structure is not simply rooted in the space, but is made up of the space and its patterns themselves. Vernacular architecture research over the years has focused on its materials, styles of buildings, environmental sustainability, building performance, thermal comfort, energy efficiency, traditional construction techniques and socio-cultural identity (Benkari et al., 2021; Dutta and Kumar, 2025; Jagatramka et al., 2020). However, although vernacular architecture is defined as a communal built environment shaped by human-nature relations (Rudofsky, 1964), they have rarely been studied from a relational perspective, specifically for the HNCs it fosters through design. This research gap prevents the acquisition of traditional knowledge and insights that could inform the design of patterns of relationships in architecture within the socio-ecological context of sustainability transitions. This paper aims to address this gap.

Architecture is a manifestation of culture; it represents the psyche or collective mind of a society in a material form, expressing and communicating its ideas, values, and beliefs (Hendrix, 2012). Culture, in turn, is considered to shape worldviews and is in itself shaped by worldviews, which include values about life, reality, and nature (McLennan, 2004; Shiundu, 2024). From this perspective, the diverse vernacular architectural forms in India express the collective psyche of its cultures, reflecting and communicating the ‘cosmocentric’ worldview that is central to Indian societies. Cosmocentrism recognises the interconnectedness of humans, nature, and the divine, viewing human life as part of a broader cosmic framework and ensuring constant linkage, interaction and a repetitive association with nature and the natural elements around us. This traditional worldview perceives the microcosm (self) and macrocosm (universe) as comprised of the same fundamental elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether), reflecting the inherent unity of all existence (Bhatt, 2018; Misra et al., 2024). It articulates the mutuality and interdependence of all existence, with humans as an inseparable part of nature and nature as the very source of the universe (Vatsyayan and Saraswati, 1995). As a result, the concept of self is relational (Mascolo et al., 2004) in India, reflecting the metaphysical harmony and interconnectedness of humans with all entities in a universal cosmic network (Heimann, 2018). Thus, vernacular architecture in India as material culture holds the potential to communicate what Escobar (2018) calls traditional cosmologies and to represent the human psyche of ecological consciousness inherent to its traditional communities. Researching these spaces can provide alternative socio-ecological design perspectives for reorienting societies to nature. It can render useful guidelines to transform human existence—body, mind, and soul—towards a relational ontology for transition to sustainability, utilising design.

India is home to diverse vernacular dwelling forms influenced by its cultural diversity, different microclimatic conditions, and the availability of building materials (Henna et al., 2021; Jain, 2019). Despite these differences, vernacular architecture across urban and rural regions of India shares many common characteristics, like courtyards, thick walls, narrow openings, sloping roofs, etc., that contribute to their socio-ecological design (Srivastava and Das, 2023). Threshold space, defined as complex multifunctional spatial structures that create transitions between different zones, often marking entrances to an area (Boettger, 2014), is one such common feature of its vernacular spaces. Semi-open porches and entrance verandas are essential elements of environmental responsiveness, socio-cultural integration, and material efficiency in vernacular dwellings across the country (Jain, 2002; Sadanand and Nagarajan, 2020; Tzortzi and Saxena, 2024). Architecture, as a fundamental medium of our being in the world, can shape and transform our human experience of reality by framing, structuring, articulating, linking, separating, uniting, enabling, and restricting our interactions with the world (Pallasmaa, 2024). This viewpoint emphasises the significance of entrance verandas as a relational design element that acts as a threshold, connecting the outside world with the interior and linking nature with culture in vernacular dwellings. The spatial characteristics of these verandas thus can influence the types of HNCs that develop as people inhabit these spaces. Despite this potential, there is hardly any research that has attempted to investigate these entrance thresholds and their role in mediating external (experiential and material) HNCs from the perspective of sustainability transition.

Along with architecture, art has always been an evolving medium of cultural expression for traditional communities, serving as a source of inspiration and creation throughout history. It is also an integral part of vernacular dwellings in India, where each region’s local arts and crafts—such as painting, mosaic work, tile work, etc.—contribute to its diversity in vernacular structures (Tipnis and Lall, 2012). These art forms are typically found as embellishments on the walls and facades of entrance verandas/courtyards in dwellings and are used to decorate homes, symbolise nature, represent everyday life, and serve ritualistic purposes. Common themes in these art forms include local flora and fauna, mythological figures, deities, epic scenes, and depictions of nature. Bhil and Gond wall paintings in Madhya Pradesh, Chittara paintings of the Deewaru tribe in Karnataka (Basu, 2020), frescoes and mural walls of Shekhawati havelis in Rajasthan (Singh, 2023; Yadav et al., 2023), and stonework in temples, forts, and palaces (Sharma, 2023) are a few examples of art on façades of traditional dwellings. These art forms, both in their concepts and practices, are also firmly anchored in the traditional holistic, integral vision of HNCs. Indian Art, in fact, is considered rooted within a “cosmocentric” cultural worldview, with creativity in both sacred and secular art growing out of the re-enactment of its traditional relational perspectives (Choudhuri, 1999; Singh, 1995; Vatsyayan and Bäumer, 1995). As a result, traditional artists perceived the self as an extension of nature and held the belief that artistic creation, much like natural growth, relies on the foundational five elements (Singh, 1995). This relationship influenced their creative processes, promoting wise resource utilisation and symbolic interpretations of nature as reflected in their artistic creation.

In this context, entrance facades, in addition to their function as transitional zones physically connecting the inside and outside, also assume a significant symbolic role as artistic thresholds influencing the types of relationalities between inhabitants and nature. The façade embellishments—often featuring richly ornamented walls, columns, beams, brackets, etc.—carry symbolic meanings, reflecting the community’s identity and relationship with their environment (Tzortzi and Saxena, 2024). In the western villages of Gujarat, India, organically evolved wooden vernacular dwellings showcase the artistic talents of their inhabitants, reflecting their agricultural lifestyle and cultural worldviews within design. The art of wood carving facades originated here as a unique cultural entity, encompassing symbolically in itself history, culture, mythology, religion, social values, inherited traditions, and human interpretations and expressions of nature (Thakkar, 2004). Though created by individual artists and shaped by the tangible and intangible cultural forces of the region, it is an artistic projection of society and its ‘cosmocentric’ worldview. As Winston Churchill once said, “First we shape our buildings, and then our buildings shape us.” This wood-crafted vernacular facade carries symbolism that can significantly influence inhabitants’ lives, their values, and the kinds of relationships they develop with nature through daily experiences of its intricate craftsmanship. Art, in fact, possesses significant potential to forge internal (emotional or philosophical) HNCs with its capacity to evoke visceral experiences and expand consciousness. Despite this potential, in vernacular architecture studies, we often tend to overlook these small-scale architectural features and patterns, neglecting to investigate the role of these subtle art forms in socio-ecological design. Therefore, in this research, we document and analyse spatial and artistic features in the entrance facades of two vernacular dwellings constructed using half-timbering techniques in the region of Bhal, Gujarat, India.

The genesis phase of this research employed a narrative review method to explore the interconnections between sustainability transitions, socio-ecological systems, and vernacular architecture. This method allows for the consolidation of various information pieces into a readable narrative format, enabling the presentation and interlinking of diverse topics and investigations (Bourhis, 2017; Green et al., 2006). It facilitated the summarisation of existing knowledge on these topics, identified gaps, and provided a conceptual background (discussed in Section 2) justifying the need for this study. This process allowed for articulation of the goal of this research to identify different types of HNCs mediated by the entrance facades in vernacular dwellings and to investigate the role of spatio-artistic features and patterns in vernacular facades nurturing these HNCs in everyday life for sustainability transition.

To achieve this goal, the study utilises the visual ethnography method. This method encompasses a wide range of approaches, which include photo elicitation, photography, family photos, GIS, art making, etc. (Van Den Scott, 2018). In this research, we triangulate photographs and sketches with observations as a method (Figure 1). Traditional ethnography involves systematic recording, analysis, and written descriptions of socio-cultural aspects to understand people and their activities within their natural contexts. Visual ethnography captures how artefacts are used, displayed, and interacted with in everyday life. It goes beyond textual descriptions by allowing for the documentation of artefacts in situ, thus providing empirical grounding for visual analysis.

For analysis, the methodology follows Müller’s (2021) and Lueger and Froschauer’s (2017) four areas of artefact analysis outlined for material culture studies, taking an interpretivist paradigm, with authors as the primary research instrument. Several categorical variables, as shown in Table 1, are examined in the artefact under study to uncover patterns of spatial, symbolic, and relational dimensions. These categories served as descriptive anchors for understanding the design characteristics in the vernacular facades. This interpretive analysis of thresholds is further supported by grounded theory techniques, as suggested by Lueger (2000) (stated in Müller, 2021), for the identification of HNCs.

This study follows a case study approach, employing the discussed research methods for gathering and analysing data to understand the HNC phenomenon within the entrance façade of vernacular dwellings. Case study has a well-established history in architectural research, as it allows for effective analyses of phenomena within its real-life context using multiple sources of information such as documentation, observations, archival records and artefacts (Adewumi et al., 2020; Yin, 2014). Thus, two vernacular dwellings in the geological region of Bhal, Gujarat, India, were selected as cases purposively. To ensure relevance and rigour, four primary criteria were applied in identifying these vernacular dwellings: (a) the case should exemplify the typical characteristics of the half-timber vernacular architectural tradition of the country; (b) the typology of dwelling should be among those rapidly disappearing due to the homogenising effects of globalisation and contemporary development; (c) the case should have largely retained its original architectural configuration, or at minimum, provide sufficient visual evidence of its original form; (d) the case should belong to the region of the country which is less known and less studied for its vernacular architecture.

Bhal is an ecologically complex semi-arid coastal region that spans approximately 100 km in length and 25 km in breadth on the left border of the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay) (Vyas and Joshi, 2014) (shown in Figure 2). It is believed to have emerged due to the shifting of the sea, resulting in a geographical landscape equally flat to the level of the sea, characterised by saline soil and water conditions, receiving an average annual rainfall of about 650 to 700 mm (Shah and Patel, 1968; Vyas and Joshi, 2015). In the local dialect of Gujarati, Bhal means ‘forehead’. This metaphor stems from the fact that, just as no hairs grow on the forehead, nothing grows in this region, and one village appears to be floating in the mirage of another. Thus, timber is not naturally available in the region. Despite this, it has been widely used as a material for the construction of traditional temples to vernacular dwellings in this region. A typical dwelling, in fact, in most traditional Indian towns and villages was timber-framed, with brick infill and lime stucco on both sides (also known as half-timber structures) (Tipnis and Lall, 2012). The emergence of traditional wooden architecture can be traced back to historical accounts of the communities living in Bhal. These accounts suggest that maritime trade and voyages once thrived in the area, with shipping routes extending from the Gulf of Khambhat to Daman and even reaching as far as Burma (Shah and Patel, 1968). As a result, the evolution of half-timber structures in Bhal was made possible because the wood was imported in large quantities through sea trade, making it a locally available material in the region.

The region’s unique geological and geographical features, along with limited resource availability, led to the development of an agro-pastoral society characterised by a distinct protective philosophy, socio-cultural practices, and ecological awareness. These factors shaped a peculiar approach to dwelling construction in Bhal, where each dwelling was designed as a self-contained unit featuring an individual open front yard enclosed by a wall on all sides and accessed through a single doorway known locally as ‘Delo.’ The main multi-storied building in this larger unit was constructed using a wooden framing system, with small bricks infilled within the frame. These bricks were set in place using mud mortar and finished with lime or mud plaster. The enclosed unit also included a separate cob-built cattle shed and often featured a Tulasi (Basil) plant, which may be found in a flower bed or in the open compound. The standout feature of this abode was the wood-crafted entrance façade of the main building, where exposed timber frames, structural elements, door frames, doors, and windows are decorated with motifs and patterns inspired by the nature and culture of the region (shown in Figure 3). As a result, the wood-crafted entrance façades of the main building from two different ‘Delo’ units belonging to the Rajput families from Fedara and Ambli (as shown in Figure 2) villages in the Bhal region in the Ahmedabad district are documented and analysed as case studies in this research. The oral evidence establishes the minimum average age of these wooden buildings as 150 years.

The reason for choosing these cases stems from the fact that the Bhal region is rapidly urbanising as a result of the Dholera SIR (Special Investment Region), a government project aimed at developing a smart industrial city in the vicinity. This development, although aiming for economic and social balance, indicates a change in rural land use and livelihoods, reshaping traditional practices of the region to meet industrial and urban demands. The emergence of such new urban forms has significant implications for HNCs and the sustainable future of the region. Thus, to effectively address the changing rural–urban dynamics in Bhal and to incorporate socio-ecological, context-sensitive design approaches into these future developments, it is essential to analyse and learn from the vernacular architecture of the region. The decision to study only two entrance facades of vernacular dwellings is to enable in-depth analysis and is based on their repetitive spatial and formal characteristics that make the selected cases representative examples of the broader regional socio-ecological design sustaining HNCs. It also stems from the fact that there are very few examples left in the region that still adhere to this traditional vernacular style, as most have transitioned to an international style, imitating the European domestic structure known as the ‘Bungalow,’ which is regarded as a symbol of modernity.

Fieldwork was conducted in May 2023 (Summer) and October 2024 (Winter), using the village of Fedara as a base. Both dwellings were visited during these periods, and data were collected through site immersion by triangulating photographs and sketches with observations. Around 3 days, on average, were spent by the principal investigator (PI) at each site during both field visits documenting the entrance veranda, gathering primarily visual data with some textual observational notes. The visits at two different seasons facilitated detailed observations over time, allowing for a deeper understanding of the setting, building trust with inhabitants, and consistently repeating the data collection process central to the case study to prevent any misinformation. Triangulation enhanced the validity, reliability, and legitimacy of the collected data, allowing for a more comprehensive documentation of the vernacular façade by capturing and interpreting its spatial and artistic characteristics. The visual documentation methods also facilitated the recording of data and information, which allowed for the creation of proportionate base drawings of the entrance facades after returning from the field. These drawings aided in the visual analysis of facades to examine the role of these artefacts and their artistic features in connecting the inhabitants with nature, both physically and symbolically.

Four areas of the artefact analysis method were employed to address the questions: what types of HNCs are mediated by the spatial features, and what types are nurtured by the artistic features of the entrance façade? Each of the two cases was visually analysed, and its features and patterns were interpreted for each of the four areas articulated by Müller (2021). These interpretations were also supported by referring to a group of patterns (specifically patterns 95–253) which shape individual buildings as described in “A Pattern Language” by Christopher Alexander et al. (1977) (discussed in Sections 4.1–4.3). Further, the grounded theory technique of coding was employed following visual analysis to interpret HNCs as a phenomenon and to inductively identify patterns and types of HNCs mediated by the art and design of entrance facades in vernacular dwellings. Based on the results of grounded theory, the authors used thematic analysis to further synthesise the types of HNCs and develop a relational analysis framework from the study.

The various connections fostered by spatial and artistic characteristics outlined in the case studies (Section 4) were initially coded to identify concepts related to HNCs in the façade. This process revealed several key concepts, including: “connecting daily activities with the rhythms of nature,” “personal connection to nature,” “creating a direct sensory connection,” “linking to familiar cycles of nature,” “connection to natural materials,” and “imaginations and memories of nature,” among others. The initial concepts were further organised through axial coding that established 23 larger categories, as discussed in Table 4. Eventually, through selective coding, eight thematic levels of HNCs were identified, which are influenced by the spatial and artistic features of the façade. The grounded theory process followed for emerging these themes is shown in an example of perception level HNCs in Figure 9. Each of these categories is discussed in this section. Four of these categories also directly correspond with the existing 4 of the 14 patterns of HNCs proposed in Biophilic Design by Browning et al. (2014); these connections are also discussed here.

The results indicate that the vernacular facades foster multiple levels of HNCs (as discussed in 5.1), highlighting the importance of spatial and artistic features in shaping these relationships. Based on the analysis of the vernacular cases, five fundamental guidelines for the relational design of architectural thresholds, specifically facades, can be provided as a means of effectively enhancing human-nature connections. The guidelines are as follows:

In these cases, it was observed that the art of wood carving evokes feelings of awe, wonder, and reverence, often triggering memories that connect one emotionally to the natural world. At the same time, its spatial qualities create a multisensory experience, encouraging one to engage with nature in a present and embodied way. These entrance facades thus play a crucial role in connecting people with nature both internally and externally in everyday life and thus hold the potential for sustainability transitions. Therefore, it’s important to emphasise that architectural design—whether in urban or rural areas—should prioritise careful design of façades and thresholds, as they play a vital role in maintaining HNCs. These elements enhance the aesthetic appeal of buildings and contribute to the overall harmony between architecture, inhabitants and the natural surroundings. However, current architectural research lacks a framework for examining how transitional architectural spaces, such as verandas and entrance facades, facilitate embodied and emotional connections between humans and the natural environment. This poses a risk of these traditional architectural elements disappearing without a comprehensive understanding of their relational and symbolic significance, due to increasing standardisation and the loss of vernacular practices. Recognising this loss, we developed an initial framework by thematically synthesising the analysis and results of this research, as shown in Table 5.

Derived from the methodological approach of this research, this framework is intended to be utilised by architects and researchers for further studies of architectural facades and their role in HNCs. This framework will potentially also assist sustainability researchers, transition researchers and artists in understanding the integration of art and architecture for reconnecting humans with nature.

From this research, it can be stated that these relationally designed elements in architecture can contribute to inner transformations (Ives et al., 2023; Ives et al., 2020) which focus on bringing fundamental shifts in the interior dimensions of sustainability, such as values, beliefs, worldviews and inner capacities. Furthermore, the results also provide a significant contribution to studies at the intersection of connectedness with nature, living in crisis (Sachdeva et al., 2022), and holistic well-being (Chakraborty, 2024) and biophilic design (Kellert et al., 2013). Urbanisation is considered to have resulted in a loss of direct contact with nature, leading to an “extinction of experience” and human-nature disconnection (Soga and Gaston, 2016; Cumming et al., 2014). The guidelines derived by analysing thresholds in vernacular dwellings that maintain HNCs can be integrated into a current sustainable development model for housing and urban planning to “revive the experience” of nature in the towns and cities.