This research adopts a comprehensive bibliometric approach combined with science mapping techniques to explore the intersection of policy instruments, technological advancement, and stakeholder cooperation in sustainable biofuel business models (SBBMs). Bibliometric analysis serves as an effective quantitative research method to process extensive scholarly metadata present in article titles, abstracts, keywords, references, and author affiliations (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Haustein and Larivière, 2015). The methodological framework integrates quantitative bibliometric analysis with visual science mapping to systematically examine the intellectual structure and evolution of research in this multidisciplinary field. To ensure contextual relevance, this approach is triangulated with Indonesia's policy trajectory in biodiesel development, particularly the B40 program that was launched in January 2025 (Christina, 2025), offering a grounded interpretation of the findings within a real-world policy implementation landscape. As a bibliometric mapping study, this approach provides an indirect and exploratory synthesis of patterns in the literature rather than testing causal impacts of specific programs. This systematic approach is particularly valuable for interdisciplinary sustainable biofuel research, enabling efficient screening of large scholarly corpora and ensuring replicability through clear documentation of search strings, inclusion criteria, and analytical tools (Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Szomszor et al., 2020). Science mapping techniques complement bibliometric analysis by visualizing and interpreting the conceptual, intellectual, and social structures within the research field (Szomszor et al., 2020; Smyrnova-Trybulska et al., 2018). This approach pairs performance indicators (publication and citation trends) with science mapping techniques including coauthor and affiliation networks, citation matrices, keyword co-occurrence, and strategic diagram analysis, using centrality, density, and clustering metrics to identify leading actors, methods, and knowledge domains (Afzal et al., 2025). The integration of science mapping is particularly crucial for this study because it examines relationships between separately studied areas including biofuel policy, innovation systems, and stakeholder strategies (Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Alkhammash, 2023). Tools such as Bibliometrix, Biblioshiny, and VOSviewer enhance data management, network analysis, and visual representation in bibliometric studies (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Aria and Cuccurullo, 2017; Orduña-Malea and Costas, 2021).

This study adopts a multi-layered analytical framework to explore sustainable biofuel business models (SBBMs) through three interconnected dimensions. It examines how policy instruments, regulatory mechanisms, and institutional arrangements influence SBBM development, while also analyzing technological advancements, innovation trajectories, and their diffusion within the sector. In parallel, it investigates stakeholder cooperation, network structures, and collaborative mechanisms that shape collective action. To enhance analytical depth and contextual relevance, Indonesia's B40 biodiesel policy is integrated as a contextual anchor using secondary evidence. This integration allows for triangulation between global research trends and national policy implementations, providing temporal anchoring through policy milestones to interpret bibliometric trends alongside policy milestones. Altogether, this framework offers a comprehensive lens to analyse the interplay of structural, technological, and social in advancing sustainable biofuel transitions.

This research delineates its temporal boundaries from 2006 to 2025 to comprehensively capture the evolution of scholarship on sustainable biofuels and Sustainable Biofuel Business Models (SBBMs) and the trajectory of Indonesia's biodiesel policy. The year 2006 marks the beginning of Indonesia's institutional engagement with biodiesel through the introduction of the B2.5 mandate, representing the first government-endorsed blending policy. This early period coincided with global attention to major climate and sustainability milestones that shaped attention to low carbon energy transitions. Between 2009 and 2015, international agreements such as the Copenhagen Accord and Paris Agreement consolidated policy frameworks and fostered global consensus on emission and temperature control strategies. These developments established a normative foundation that influenced national energy transitions, including those in Indonesia. The period from 2016 onwards aligns with the adoption and operationalization of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). These goals provided a global mandate for renewable energy innovation and low-emission policy action. The decision to extend the temporal scope through 2025 is strategically grounded in Indonesia's policy trajectory, as the B40 mandate was officially launched in January 2025 (Christina, 2025). This milestone represents a significant policy leap and serves as a concrete temporal anchor for interpreting bibliometric trends alongside national policy milestones. By framing the analysis within this two-decade span, the study ensures alignment between bibliometric trends and key global and national developments. It provides a robust context to evaluate how global signals and national changes are reflected in the evolution of academic knowledge on sustainable biofuels.

This research draws on two renowned bibliographic databases, Scopus (Elsevier) and Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics), selected for their top-quality indexing, broad disciplinary coverage, and advanced search and filtering tools that enable replicable systematic bibliometric reviews (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Haustein and Larivière, 2015). Methodological transparency is ensured through explicit reporting of bibliometric data processing steps (retrieval, export filtering, merging, and cleaning), and the workflow is documented in Figure 1 and detailed in Sections 2.3 and 2.4. Scopus provides comprehensive coverage across energy, social sciences, business management, and economics, and offers detailed author and affiliation profiles supporting co-authorship and institutional network analysis (Alkhammash, 2023; Si et al., 2019; Demirbas, 2009a; Costa et al., 2018). Web of Science complements this with strong indexing in environmental science, business, economics, and management, along with robust temporal data structures enabling longitudinal evaluations and scientific mapping (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Abramo and D'Angelo, 2011). Combining Scopus and Web of Science reduces disciplinary gaps and bias while ensuring extensive, high-quality coverage across the natural and social sciences (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Smyrnova-Trybulska et al., 2018; Orduña-Malea and Costas, 2021; Si et al., 2019; Mann et al., 2006; Davis et al., 2014). Using both databases strengthens data stability and mitigates the risk of overlooking critical sectors in this interdisciplinary field (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Orduña-Malea and Costas, 2021; Mann et al., 2006). To ensure analytical rigor, this study included only peer-reviewed journal articles, excluding conference proceedings, book chapters, and editorials (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Costa et al., 2018). Additionally, only English-language publications were considered to guarantee standardized comprehension across the global academic community (Alkhammash, 2023; Si et al., 2019). Search retrieval was conducted in both databases using the same conceptual scope and inclusion criteria, with database-specific field tags and syntax adjustments documented to maintain comparability and replicability. The final dataset forms the foundation for analyses using VOSviewer (version 1.6.20) and Biblioshiny (version 4.1.2), enabling the mapping of citation patterns and intellectual structures within global biofuel research (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Orduña-Malea and Costas, 2021). Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny supports performance and thematic mapping analyses, whereas VOSviewer is used primarily for network construction and visualization.

The search strategy was designed to identify relevant materials in Scopus and Web of Science that aligned with the study's focus on biofuels, policy and regulation, technological innovation, and stakeholder participation (Alkhammash, 2023; Costa et al., 2018). It included four thematic groups built from systematically structured keywords combining standardized vocabulary with wildcards to yield broad semantic results (Szomszor et al., 2020; Smyrnova-Trybulska et al., 2018). In Scopus, the TITLE-ABS-KEY field was used to extract records from titles, abstracts, and author keywords (Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Alkhammash, 2023). Boolean operators connected terms across four core themes: (i) biofuel (core domain terms); (ii) policy and governance; (iii) technology and innovation; and (iv) stakeholder and collaboration dynamics (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Si et al., 2019). The query was restricted to peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2006 and 2025 in Business, Energy, Economics, and Social Sciences subject areas, with English as the language of publication (Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Smyrnova-Trybulska et al., 2018). The complete search string formulation is provided in Table 1, detailing its logical structure and parameter limits.

The Web of Science search used segmented operations in the TS (Topic) fields, combining biofuel-related root terms with thematic components such as technology, policy, stakeholder dynamics, and energy transition/global context terms (e.g., energy transition/decarbonization and global/international keywords) (Szomszor et al., 2020; Abramo and D'Angelo, 2011). This modular approach enabled a more granular capture of studies spanning diverse disciplinary lenses (Smyrnova-Trybulska et al., 2018; Alkhammash, 2023). Table 1 outlines the detailed search protocol applied in Web of Science, reflecting a multilevel Boolean structure to isolate relevant literature across interconnected dimensions of the biofuel transition. While Scopus allows this scope to be implemented as a single integrated query, Web of Science requires a modular TS strategy; both protocols were designed to represent the same conceptual scope anchored on biofuel root terms, with database-specific syntax differences documented in Table 1.

The search was conducted on March 23, 2025, with specific criteria restricting results to English-language, peer-reviewed journal articles in relevant subject fields (Si et al., 2019; Costa et al., 2018). The methodology follows established bibliometric best practices to ensure replicability and validity by focusing on articles addressing the integration of the three focal enablers (policy/governance, innovation, and stakeholder engagement), captured through four keyword blocks including the biofuel domain (Szomszor et al., 2020; Alkhammash, 2023).

Included in the dataset were only: (i) publications from 2006 to 2025; (ii) peer-reviewed journal articles (excluding editorials, proceedings, books, reports); (iii) English-language articles; and (iv) records indexed under relevant subject categories, including Business, Energy, Economics, and Social Sciences (Scopus) and Environmental Sciences, Economics, Business, Management, and Energy Fuels (WoS) (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Costa et al., 2018). The search produced 2,903 records: 476 from Scopus and 2,427 from Web of Science. Web of Science exported 2,252 records, as its internal filters excluded documents lacking abstracts or keywords (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Alkhammash, 2023). Scopus records (.csv) and WoS records (.bib) were integrated for cleaning (Costa et al., 2018; Abramo and D'Angelo, 2011) (see Figure 1 for the data cleaning workflow). No manual title/abstract screening was conducted by the authors. Relevance control relied on the predefined search query, database filters, and the automated/metadata-based cleaning steps described below. The combined dataset (2,728 records) was processed using RStudio (2024.12.1 Build 563) with the Bibliometrix R package (Haustein and Larivière, 2015; Szomszor et al., 2020), yielding 2,725 unique articles after cleaning (three duplicates removed from 2,728). Key steps included: (i) metadata harmonization across title, authors, journal, DOI (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Si et al., 2019); (ii) deduplication using fuzzy matching (DOI, title, author) (Szomszor et al., 2020; Orduña-Malea and Costas, 2021; Aquino et al., 2022); (iii) metadata-based filtering of records missing abstracts/keywords (van Eck and Waltman, 2010; Waltman and van Eck, 2012); and (iv) field standardization for author names, institutions, citation metrics (Costa et al., 2018; Davis et al., 2014). The cleaned dataset was exported in .TXT (for VOSviewer mapping) and .XLSX (for Biblioshiny analysis), ensuring full interoperability and replicability (Costa et al., 2018; Abramo and D'Angelo, 2011). Bibliometrix (RStudio) was used for data import, harmonization, and deduplication, as well as core performance analyses (e.g., descriptive statistics and citation indicators). Biblioshiny (the Bibliometrix web interface) was used for thematic and longitudinal analyses (e.g., trend topics, thematic evolution, and three field plots), while VOSviewer was used to construct and visualize network maps (e.g., keyword co-occurrence, co-authorship, and citation-based clustering).

Following the macro-level mapping of dissemination pathways in Section 3.3, this section adopts a nested “zoom in” logic to examine Indonesia's integration within the global biofuel collaboration network. We first position Indonesia at the country level (Figure 6) and then assess author-level embedding to identify whether country visibility translates into integration within influential collaboration hubs (Figure 7).

The findings presented in Sections 3.1 and 3.2 reveal a clear consolidation of global biofuel scholarship around a dominant policy-innovation trajectory. Longitudinal and thematic analyses (Figures 3, 4) indicate that, across the five temporal phases examined, research themes repeatedly stabilize around regulatory frameworks, life cycle assessment, and technology-oriented solution pathways. This pattern reflects a growing scholarly emphasis on aligning technological development with policy instruments as a central mechanism for advancing biofuel transitions (Markard, 2020).

Despite this consolidation, stakeholder engagement remains comparatively peripheral and weakly embedded within the dominant knowledge structure. Co-occurrence and thematic evolution evidence (Figures 2–4) shows that stakeholder-related concepts exhibit limited connectivity and do not evolve into stable cross period bridging pathways linking policy and innovation streams. Rather than diffusing across thematic clusters, stakeholder constructs tend to remain fragmented, suggesting that participatory and multi actor governance perspectives have not yet become integral components of the mainstream biofuel research trajectory.

These literature-mapped patterns directly address RQ1 by demonstrating that global biofuel research prioritizes policy-innovation convergence while comparatively underrepresenting stakeholder-oriented integration. From a strategic perspective, this imbalance may constrain the relevance of existing knowledge for complex sustainability challenges that require not only technological readiness and regulatory support, but also social legitimacy and coordinated actor participation.

The observed asymmetry has important implications for Sustainable Biofuel Business Models (SBBMs). In this study, SBBMs are understood as business models that create and capture value while simultaneously advancing environmental, social, and economic sustainability objectives through the alignment of policy frameworks, innovation capabilities, and stakeholder engagement. When stakeholder dimensions remain weakly connected to policy and innovation domains, biofuel transitions risk becoming technocratically robust yet socially fragile.

This synthesis also motivates RQ2. While bibliometric analysis does not assess implementation outcomes, the Results provide a bibliometric evidence base, that is, literature-mapped structural and longitudinal signals, that informs the development of the strategic alignment framework presented in Section 4.2. To avoid the impression of ex post justification, the framework is positioned as a hybrid proposition: inductively motivated by the patterns identified in Sections 3.1–3.5 and deductively structured using established transition-governance scholarship on institutional coordination and multi actor participation.

Building on the findings in Section 3, this study proposes an integrated strategic framework to address the fragmentation observed between policy, innovation, and stakeholder domains. The framework advocates for a triadic enabler alignment model that positions policy enablers, innovation enablers, and stakeholder enablers as interdependent pillars essential for advancing Sustainable Biofuel Business Models (SBBMs). This approach moves beyond the dominant technocentric paradigm (see Figure 8) by embedding participatory governance alongside technological and regulatory mechanisms, ensuring legitimacy and long-term resilience (Markard et al., 2012; Baasch and Maschke, 2025).

Figure 9 translates these mapped bibliometric imbalances into a structured alignment proposition. Policy enablers (e.g., blending mandates, fiscal incentives) provide the regulatory scaffolding and market signals necessary for biofuel transitions (IEA, 2023). Innovation enablers (e.g., life cycle assessment, biorefinery technologies, circular bioeconomy tools) drive technological advancement and environmental performance (Cherubini and Strømman, 2011; Osman et al., 2024). Stakeholder enablers (e.g., community co-design, industry collaboration, local engagement platforms) ensure inclusivity, aligning biofuel initiatives with societal values and expectations (Farla et al., 2012; Rush et al., 2025).

Crucially, the framework identifies co-creation platforms, multilevel governance mechanisms, and feedback loops as key integrative tools to unify these enablers. Co-creation platforms facilitate joint knowledge production and shared decisionmaking between state actors, industry, and civil society (Wittmayer and Schäpke, 2014; Bokolo, 2023). Multilevel governance mechanisms promote policy coherence across national, regional, and local levels, ensuring alignment with community needs (Peters and Pierre, 2004; Dorado-Rubín et al., 2025). Feedback loops between practice and policy enable adaptive learning and iterative improvement of biofuel strategies (Geels and Schot, 2007; Morales, 2024). These elements address gaps observed in global biofuel literature (Sections 3.1–3.3), where stakeholder participation remains marginal, and policy-innovation synergies rarely incorporate inclusive governance (Markard et al., 2012; Baasch and Maschke, 2025).

To avoid the impression of ex post justification, the framework is explicitly positioned as hybrid and propositional: it is inductively motivated by the literature-mapped patterns in Sections 3.1–3.5, while offering a deductively structured set of alignment mechanisms and enablers for transition governance. In this sense, Indonesia's B40 program is referenced as an illustrative application context (Section 3.4), where strong policy and innovation advances may remain vulnerable if stakeholder integration is not institutionally embedded. It emphasizes that sustainable biofuel business models require not only technical and regulatory excellence but also institutional mechanisms that embed societal co-ownership in transition processes (Farla et al., 2012; Rush et al., 2025).

By foregrounding participatory governance alongside policy and technology, the proposed framework directly responds to the study's second research question and provides actionable guidance for business leaders and policymakers in designing inclusive and resilient biofuel transition pathways.

This study advances the theoretical discourse on sustainable biofuel business models (SBBMs) by highlighting the structural imbalance between policy–innovation integration and stakeholder engagement. Building on the propositional alignment framework in Section 4.2 (Figure 9), this subsection clarifies what the framework contributes theoretically and practically by translating the mapped bibliometric patterns into implications for SBBMs. The bibliometric evidence indicates that global scholarship remains predominantly technocentric, with participatory governance perspectives only weakly incorporated. This reinforces prior critiques that transition studies often privilege technical and regulatory solutions over social inclusivity (Turnheim et al., 2015; Newell et al., 2023). By proposing a triadic alignment framework that positions stakeholder participation as a co-equal enabler alongside policy and innovation, the study offers an evidence-informed, propositional lens for examining systemic sustainability transitions in which stakeholder participation is treated as an enabling condition rather than a peripheral add-on. It also aligns with calls for more integrative, multi-actor approaches in managing sociotechnical change (Schot and Steinmueller, 2018; Haddad et al., 2022).

From a practical standpoint, the findings offer business leaders and policymakers actionable guidance for operationalizing inclusive biofuel strategies. Rather than reiterating the framework components, the practical implication is that co-creation platforms, multi-level governance mechanisms, and feedback loops provide concrete governance levers for bridging policy, technology, and societal expectations in biofuel transitions. Indonesia's B40 biodiesel experience illustrates both the potential and limitations of technocentric transitions in the absence of broad stakeholder alignment. Embedding these strategic levers can enhance the legitimacy, adaptability, and long term resilience of biofuel business models, particularly in emerging economies aiming to meet SDG 7 and SDG 13 targets. Future efforts should prioritize testing and refinement of this integrative framework through cross-sectoral partnerships and pilot initiatives, consistent with the study's bibliometric scope.