The study took place in the city of Labuan Bajo, the capital of Komodo Subdistrict, West Manggarai Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The administrative area defined as Labuan Bajo encompasses four villages: Batu Cermin Village, Gorontalo Village, Wae Kelambu Village, and Labuan Bajo Village, covering a total area of 38.78 km², as shown in Figure 1. Data collection was carried out over a total of 35 days across 3 months: permits and household waste (HW) data were collected from December 4–13, 2024, while data from non-household waste (non-HW) were collected from January 18–27, 2025, and February 13–27, 2025.

This study applied a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data collected simultaneously, analyzed separately, and then integrated for interpretation and validation, as shown in Figure 2. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were examined through thematic analysis. This mixed-methods approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of food waste conditions, as well as the underlying causes and drivers, enabling evidence-based recommendations for reduction strategies. Similar approaches have been used in studies on restaurants (Budijati and Setiyawan, 2023), dining establishments and hotels (Brigita and Rahardyan, 2013), and hospitals (Papargyropoulou et al., 2019).

Food waste quantification followed the Food Waste Accounting Standard in Retail (Metode Baku Perhitungan Sisa Pangan pada Ritel) (Bachtiar et al., 2024), the first and most recent nationally recognized method, adapted from the Food Loss and Waste Accounting and Reporting Standard (World Resource Institute, 2016).

To align with the Food Waste Accounting Standard, the following components are included within the scope of the food waste inventory:

Sample size determination followed SNI 19–3,964-1995 (Sampling and Measurement of Urban Waste Generation and Composition) (Badan Standarisasi Nasional, 1995), an Indonesian national standard for quantifying urban waste. Details on the sampling methods are presented in Supplementary material 1.

Stratified random sampling was used to ensure representative sampling. Food waste producing units were categorized by specific attributes, and random samples were drawn proportionally to the population distribution in each subcategory, allowing better representation of heterogeneous population.

The results of the sample size calculation are presented in Table 1, while detailed information is provided in Supplementary material 2.

The total amount of food waste generated in Labuan Bajo throughout 2024 is estimated at 4,836 tons, with a detailed breakdown presented in Table 4. The proportion of food waste generated in Labuan Bajo in Figure 3, indicates that non-HW producing units account for a larger share (51.5%) compared to HW (48.5%). This finding contrasts with both national and global patterns. According to Indonesia’s national FLW data, approximately 80% of food waste in the consumption stage originates from households (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional, 2021). Globally, the UNEP Food Waste Index Report (2021) reports that households contribute 65% of food waste in the consumption sector, with the remaining share coming from food businesses and retail (Forbes et al., 2021). This discrepancy further highlights the significant influence of tourism in Labuan Bajo, where the increasing number of tourists has stimulated the growth of food service businesses in the non-household sector, subsequently increasing food waste generation (Kiwang and Arif, 2020).

When analyzed by groups of producing unit, Figure 4 shows that households contributed the largest share (48.5%) of total food waste, followed by food establishments (19.4%) and traditional markets (13.8%). If broken down in more detail by producing unit as shown in Figure 5; hotels, restaurants, food stalls, and tourist boats each contributed between 5 and 10%, while the remaining categories including cafés, retailers, speedboats, and bakeries, accounted for less than 3% of the total food waste generated. A further breakdown of the food waste generation rate per producing unit per day is presented in Table 5.

Despite the presence of only two major traditional markets in Labuan Bajo, they ranked second after households in total food waste volume. This is primarily due to the high volume of discarded produce that vendors receive from upstream suppliers. Much of the food supply comes from outside the island and is highly susceptible to spoilage due to weather and infrastructure constraints. As one vendor noted: “Most of them come from Surabaya and Mataram. The food waste problem worsens when there are high waves or bad weather, which delays ship schedules, causing so many fruits go bad.”

Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable commodities, with total loss rates of 62.8% for vegetables and 45.5% for fruits (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional, 2021). Contributing factors include the quality of raw materials, packaging type, shipping methods, storage temperature, weather conditions, transport mode, and suboptimal operational handling (Bartezzaghi et al., 2022).

The term ‘destination’ refers to “where material removed from the food supply chain is directed” (Bachtiar et al., 2024). Findings reveal that over half (58.9%) of food waste in Labuan Bajo is utilized as animal feed, as illustrated in Figure 6. When disaggregated by producing unit, Figure 7 shows that nearly all producing units direct more than 50% of their food waste to this destination.

Most households directed their food scraps toward use as pig feed, while some provided leftovers to household animals such as chickens, ducks, cats, or dogs. Similarly, in the non-HW sector, the majority of food waste was given to pigs, with a smaller proportion fed to chickens, ducks, or pet birds.

The collection system for this destination is typically facilitated through a bucket deposit method, where pig farmers leave containers to be filled with food scraps and later retrieved. This practice is widespread, as many small-scale pig farmers in the area collect food waste not only from nearby residents but also from hotels, restaurants, retailers, traditional markets, and tourist boats, either free of charge or through informal payment arrangements.

Food waste is widely regarded in Labuan Bajo as an alternative resource of animal feed. Using it as pig feed is a common and accepted practice, also observed in other countries such as Sri Lanka and South Korea (Jayathilake et al., 2022; Salemdeeb et al., 2017). This approach aligns with the food recovery hierarchy and is considered environmentally sustainable. A life cycle assessment (LCA) demonstrated that utilizing household food waste as animal feed results in lower environmental and health impacts compared to composting or anaerobic digestion (Salemdeeb et al., 2017).

This practice is especially noteworthy given the pressures of modernization brought about by tourism. Despite these changes, traditional small homesteading remains prevalent among the original inhabitants of Labuan Bajo. Moreover, the collective spirit of the community is reflected in initiatives like the bucket system, which may be difficult to replicate in more urbanized tourist destinations. However, in cases where the amount of food waste available for use as livestock feed is insufficient, households are compelled to tear open garbage bags and sort waste item by item in order to secure adequate supplies. Such practices are undertaken by men, women, and children without protective equipment, thereby increasing the risk of injury from sharp objects, exposure to hazardous substances, and transmission of disease.

The second most common destination for food waste is disposal at landfill (25.4%), as shown in Figure 6. Food waste from the non-HW sector, which is served by the Department of Environment and Land Management (DLHP) waste collection services, is entirely directed to this facility. Some households also dispose of their food scraps in waste bins at nearby communal facilities, which are subsequently transported to landfill. The landfill in Labuan Bajo is Tempat Pemrosesan Akhir (TPA) Warloka, a newly constructed 0.2-hectare site built in 2021 to accommodate the region’s tourism-driven waste management demands (Bisnis, 2022; Patroli Post, 2022).

The third most common destination is marine disposal (8.7%), highlighting the need for improved food waste management in coastal and marine sectors. This practice was observed in several coastal households that cited convenience as the main reason, as well as in all sampled phinisi tourist ships. As these ships typically operate on multi-day voyages, food waste is discarded promptly to prevent odors and pests. Some crew members reported that they only discard waste that sinks and can be consumed by fish, while others reported discarding all food waste.

Although ship crews are officially instructed by the Port Authority (KSOP) to dispose of waste at the Port Security Enforcement Unit (Kesatuan Pelaksanaan Pengamanan Pelabuhan) disposal facility, field findings show that this protocol is not always followed. According to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 73/78 Annex V, food waste may legally be discharged into the sea only if it is macerated to ≤25 mm and disposed of at least 12 nautical miles from the coastline. However, many ships do not comply with this regulation (Sukirno and Purnomo, 2024).

Our findings indicate that most phinisi crew members were unaware of these maritime waste disposal rules, and instead believed that discarded food was harmless since it would be eaten by marine animals. In addition to impacting aesthetics, the discharge of food waste and nutrient-rich greywater into the sea can lead to marine eutrophication and oxygen depletion (Vaneeckhaute, 2021), which further destabilize coral ecosystems and increase coral mortality (Lesser, 2021), threatening one of Labuan Bajo’s major tourism attractions.

In addition to the three main destinations described above, there are several context-specific food waste destinations driven by the lack of formal waste collection services by the Department of Environment and Land Management (DLHP) for households. These include open burning (2.6%), land application (0.5%) where waste is buried, and refuse/discard/litter (0.4%), where food waste is simply thrown into the backyard.

Other destinations include wastewater disposal (2.9%), primarily for liquid waste such as beverages, coffee/tea grounds, and vegetable broth; donation (0.4%); biochemical processing (0.1%) mainly the conversion of used cooking oil into biodiesel; and offsite transport with unknown final destinations (0.1%).

Overall, food waste management practices in Labuan Bajo show positive outcomes, with most food waste not ending up in landfills. Among the most promising practices is the use of food waste as animal feed, which holds substantial economic potential. Studies suggest that substituting agricultural and industrial food waste for up to 25% of commercial feed ingredients can reduce feed costs by up to 48%, without compromising animal growth performance (Widayati et al., 2019), provided that nutritional content, safety, and supply sustainability are maintained (Jayathilake et al., 2022).

Conversely, marine disposal and open burning require policy intervention and community education to promote more environmentally sound alternatives. Such efforts are aligned with the development of a sustainable circular food system.

Based on material type, food waste can be classified into edible parts (“any substance, whether processed, semi-processed, or raw, intended for human consumption”) and inedible parts, which include “components not meant to be consumed by humans, such as bones, rinds, pits, and stones” (World Resource Institute, 2016). In Labuan Bajo in 2024, edible parts constituted 55% of the total food waste, while inedible parts accounted for the remaining 45%, as illustrated in Figure 8.

When disaggregated by food waste producing unit as shown in Figure 9, the edible portion composition across business units was ranging from 36 to 88%. The highest proportion of edible parts was recorded on speedboats (88%), followed by bakeries and food stalls (64%), hotels (63%), and traditional markets (62%). In contrast, the lowest shares of edible parts were observed in cafés (36%), restaurants (43%), and phinisi ships (49%).

Speedboats, which exhibited the highest proportion of edible parts (88%), indicating a predominance of avoidable food waste, are typically used for one-day tourist trips to nearby attractions. Passengers are provided with pre-packaged lunch boxes, and uneaten contents from these meals constitute the primary source of food waste. The high proportion of edible parts is likely due to the pre-packaged nature of these meals, which may not align with individual preferences. A recent meta-analysis found that food waste from lunch boxes occurs because consumers are unable to select their preferred meals or adjust portion sizes (Guimarães et al., 2024). This issue may be compounded by the diverse nationalities and dietary preferences of tourists visiting Labuan Bajo, increasing the probability of a mismatch between meals provided and individual tastes.

In contrast, cafés reported the lowest proportion of edible parts, primarily due to limited menu variety and simpler food items. As a result, most food waste in cafés consists of inedible parts, such as coffee grounds, fruit peels, and other inedible remnants. This contrast reflects how various characteristics of food service such as business type, service style, duration of operation, average number of customers, distribution method, product pricing, and menu type, significantly influence the volume and composition of food waste generated (Tomaszewska et al., 2024; Guimarães et al., 2024; Afzal et al., 2022).

Interestingly, households showed a relatively high share of edible parts (54%), exceeding those observed in some commercial establishments, such as restaurants (43%), cafés (36%), and phinisi boats (49%). Interviews revealed that this may be linked to household behaviors in which leftover food is intentionally discarded in larger quantities to serve as feed for domestic livestock. This practice may reduce the sense of guilt associated with wasting food. Similarly, Qi et al. (2021) found that households in China that kept livestock and regularly used food waste as animal feed produced 75% more food waste than other rural households.

Food waste can be categorized by material status into three groups: consumable (food considered fit for human consumption), non-consumable (food considered unfit for consumption due to spoilage, mold, texture changes, expiration, or contamination), and technically consumable (food that is not typically consumed by the local population due to cultural norms or limited knowledge, but is actually fit for consumption and commonly eaten in other regions) (Bachtiar et al., 2024).

In Labuan Bajo, food waste in 2024 was predominantly composed of non-consumable items, accounting for 73% of the total. Figure 10 shows that consumable food waste made up 24%, while technically consumable items represented the remaining 3%.

Among food waste-generating units, the highest proportion of consumable food waste was observed on speedboats (88%), followed by phinisi boats (39%), hotels (38%), and cafés (34%), as illustrated in Figure 11. As previously discussed, the high percentage on speedboats is primarily due to pre-packaged lunch boxes that are not fully consumed by tourists, largely due to differences in dietary preferences and taste, resulting in a significant portion of consumable items being discarded.

In phinisi boats, hotels, and cafés, the high proportion of consumable waste is influenced by buffet-style service and food safety protocols, including standard operating procedures (SOPs) for shelf life and food storage. Buffet services often lead to more food waste because customers are less constrained by portion control, knowing they pay a fixed price regardless of how much they consume (Guimarães et al., 2024). Similarly, many hotels employ a “serve endless, eat endless” concept as part of their luxury offerings, which enhances perceived value (Gannon et al., 2022). To maintain food safety, high-end hotels often prefer to discard leftover food rather than repurpose or re-serve it (Chawla et al., 2021). Comparable practices are observed in restaurants, where strict quality assurance standards significantly influence the quantity of waste generated (McAdams et al., 2019).

In contrast, traditional markets (5%) and retailers (15%) showed the lowest proportions of consumable food waste. This pattern is linked to efforts by business operators to minimize economic loss by avoiding the disposal of food that remains fit for consumption. Such items are typically discarded only after they exceed consumption safety thresholds or fail to sell even after price reductions or reprocessing (Riesenegger and Hübner, 2022). Retailers and bakeries also implement several strategies to prevent waste, such as maintaining accurate data, forecasting demand precisely, adjusting product volume and variety, applying differentiated handling procedures, and employing recovery tactics like dynamic pricing or repurposing leftover ingredients into new products (Riesenegger and Hübner, 2022).

Technically consumable waste was most frequently found in food stalls (13%) and restaurants (8%). Examples of such waste include grated coconut residue, carrot and potato peels, cucumber seeds and skins, cabbage cores, and chicken tails. These materials are typically not consumed in Labuan Bajo or by the general public, even though they are safe to eat, with or without further processing. In some regions, however, these items are regularly utilized, for example, grated coconut residue is used to make tempe bongkrek in Purwokerto, Central Java (Ghaffar, 2023), or repurposed into serundeng and other dishes (Suariani et al., 2025). Food stalls tend to produce more grated coconut residue due to the use of fresh coconuts for coconut milk, while restaurants often discard vegetable peels for presentation and aesthetic reasons.

One strategy to reduce technically consumable food waste is to improve public awareness and culinary skills related to the utilization of such materials. Parts of fruits and vegetables that are commonly discarded such as peels, seeds, and stems, often contain beneficial nutrients including carotenoids, fiber, enzymes, and polyphenols. In some cases, these components contain even higher nutrient concentrations than the edible flesh (Bhardwaj et al., 2022). For instance, potato peels contain 3.24 mg of iron per 100 grams, which is nearly double the iron content found in chicken eggs (1.67 mg per 100 grams) (USDA FDC). These nutritional potential warrants further exploration, both to reduce food waste and to promote the use of underutilized food parts as functional sources of nutrition.

The percentage of recoverable food waste is derived from the combined total of food waste classified as consumable or technically consumable, and categorized as edible parts. While not all of this waste is practically suitable for donation as ready-to-eat food, it represents significant potential for prevention, reduction, or repurposing through various strategies. These may include reprocessing technically consumable items, reducing plate waste, transforming surplus ingredients or meals into new products, or redistributing food to those in need to benefit food-insecure communities.

Approximately one-quarter (24%) of food waste in Labuan Bajo falls into the recoverable category, while the remaining 76% is considered non-recoverable, as illustrated in Figure 12. Further breakdown in Figure 13 shows that the highest proportions of recoverable food waste were observed in speed boats (87%), followed by food stalls (43%), hotels (38%), and phinisi boats (36%). In contrast, the lowest percentages were found in traditional markets (5%), retail outlets (14%), and bakeries (15%).

The primary reason speed boats rank highest aligns with the explanation in the previous section. The pre-packaged lunch boxes served on speed boats might contain menu items that do not match tourists’ preferences, resulting in a high volume of consumable food being discarded.

In food stalls, hotels, and phinisi boats, recoverable parts are generally composed of plate waste, plain rice, and side dishes that are discarded despite remaining fit for consumption. Plate waste is among the leading contributors to food waste in the hotel, restaurant, and catering sectors; second only to overproduction and quality deterioration (Afzal et al., 2022). This is closely linked to the buffet-style serving systems adopted by some food stalls and hotels, as well as all phinisi boats. However, it is often difficult to determine whether the waste originates from consumer plates or leftover food on buffet trays, especially in larger hotel operations, which may limit the development of targeted intervention strategies.

Although 24% of food waste is potentially recoverable, only 0.44% is currently redistributed through donations. This figure originates from a single chili vendor in the traditional market who routinely donates unsellable chilies to farmers for use as seeds. Meanwhile, some hotels, restaurants, and food stalls reported having engaged in food donation, though only occasionally rather than through regular surplus redistribution.

In hotels, although no routine donation of surplus food was reported, many allow staff to consume leftover food. However, three out of 10 hotels specifically premium four- and five-star establishments stated that staff were not permitted to consume leftover breakfast items. This restriction does not appear to be based on direct assessment of food safety, but rather reflects institutional risk management practices. Higher-tier hotels tend to prioritize brand protection, liability avoidance, and operational efficiency, leading them to adopt more conservative surplus food handling policies, even when food remains fit for consumption. This approach is consistent with previous findings that stricter internal controls in upscale hotels are often associated with higher levels of food waste (Tuan et al., 2024). Nonetheless, these hotels have adopted alternative recovery strategies, such as repurposing surplus food into new menu items, for example, converting leftover bread into bagelen (toasted sweet bread).

Despite the theoretical potential to recover 24% of food waste, the current lack of recovery and donation practices warrants serious attention. Food redistribution not only helps reducing waste generation but also addresses food insecurity. Studies have shown that a lack of awareness about food waste issues and their environmental impacts, as well as limited resources, are key barriers to redistributing surplus food (Derqui and Filimonau, 2024).

Currently, there are no structured food redistribution systems such as food banks operating in Labuan Bajo. The establishment of such institutions could assist businesses in diverting surplus food without the burden of additional resources. However, findings from Pakistan show that many restaurants continue to donate surplus food informally to their staff and surrounding communities, despite lacking access to formal redistribution systems. These practices are seen as practical, cost-effective, and still contribute meaningfully to food waste reduction (Afzal et al., 2022). The active engagement of community members with local churches could also be leveraged to facilitate these donations, as demonstrated by eight southwestern states in the USA (Mousa and Freeland-Graves, 2017).

In the Labuan Bajo context, food waste is even considered a valuable resource by some segments of the population, particularly pig farmers, who often compete for access to it. This creates a challenge in shifting the use of food waste from animal feed to human consumption, despite the principles of the food recovery hierarchy, which prioritize human consumption over animal feed whenever possible.

The environmental impact of food waste in Labuan Bajo for 2024 as shown in Table 6 includes the emission of 15,395,611 kg of CO₂-eq greenhouse gas emission, a soil quality index impact of 820,441,660 points, and a water footprint of 30,382,529 m³-eq. The greenhouse gas emissions associated with food waste are equivalent to the emissions produced by coal-fired power plants generating 20,527,481 kWh of electricity. This amount of energy could supply the annual electricity needs in a year of 3,637 households, or approximately 12% of Labuan Bajo’s population.

As the global population and food demand continue to rise, food waste represents a significant loss of critical resources such as water and land, while also contributing to GHG emissions across all stages of the food supply chain (World Resource Institute, 2016). These emissions further exacerbate the climate crisis. Although the immediate impacts may not be directly felt by communities in Labuan Bajo, evidence suggests that the effects of climate change are beginning to emerge. A joint study conducted by several Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) reported increasingly unpredictable seasonal patterns, which have disrupted the traditional knowledge systems of local fishers, making it difficult for them to plan their fishing schedules. This shift has led to a decline in reliance on marine resources and a sharp decrease in the number of active fishers (Floresa, 2025). Moreover, the Komodo dragon, Labuan Bajo’s most iconic tourism attraction and one of the species surviving in the last remaining safe havens, is also under threat (Jones et al., 2020). Global warming, particularly rising temperatures and sea levels, is projected to reduce the Komodo dragon’s habitat in Komodo National Park by over 30% within the next 45 years (IUCN, 2021).

Food waste generated by the hospitality and food service sectors has a higher environmental impact per kilogram compared to waste from the healthcare and other business sectors (Meier et al., 2021). A lack of awareness regarding the environmental consequences of food waste, coupled with limited capacity among businesses to measure both its volume and impact, presents a significant challenge. Yet, accurate measurement can yield strategic benefits. Businesses that adopt sustainability principles especially within the tourism and hospitality sectors, stand to gain economic advantages through cost efficiency and revenue diversification, as well as environmental benefits through the reduction of resource consumption and emissions (Siti, 2024). Addressing food waste is therefore becoming increasingly urgent, particularly given the prevailing public perception in Labuan Bajo, where awareness remains low and both community and governmental efforts are still predominantly focused on plastic waste.

The total nutritional loss resulting from food waste in Labuan Bajo throughout 2025 is estimated at 3,443,616.995 kilocalories as shown in Table 7. Theoretically, this amount could meet the daily calorie intake needs of approximately 1,639,818 individuals in 1 day, or equivalent to feeding the entire population of Labuan Bajo for 56 days. However, this estimate only accounts for calorie content and does not include other essential macronutrients such as protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Therefore, the figure reflects only general calorie sufficiency and not overall nutritional adequacy.

However, the calculation of calorie content was conducted in detail, referring to both Indonesian and international food composition databases. For traditional foods not listed in these databases, estimations were carried out manually using online recipe references and retrieving calorie content data of ingredients from the Indonesian Food Composition Table (Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia, 2020). This approach demonstrates that the quantification method applied was contextual and took into account the availability of local data, thereby producing results that more accurately reflect actual conditions in the field.

According to Chen et al. (2020) the average global per capita food waste is approximately 65 kg per year, which could provide 25 daily nutrients for 18 days. In comparison, food waste in Labuan Bajo shows a threefold higher potential for meeting daily calorie intake needs per person than the global average, though this analysis is limited to calorie content and excludes other nutrients. These findings highlight food waste as a substantial potential energy source that could contribute to food security in the region. This aligns with findings in West Java, where nutrient losses from food loss and waste in 2018 accounted for 15.98% of daily calorie requirements and 16.45% of protein adequacy levels, reinforcing the urgency to address food waste’s nutritional impact (Fatimah et al., 2022).

According to Law No. 18 of 2012, food security is defined as the fulfillment of food needs at both national and individual levels, characterized by the availability of sufficient, safe, nutritious, diverse, equitable, and affordable food. Food waste significantly undermines food security, with research showing a negative correlation between food waste and food security levels in urban areas (Shabanali Fami et al., 2021), affecting all four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability (Obiedzińska, 2017).

This issue is particularly relevant in East Nusa Tenggara Province, which has the second-highest stunting prevalence in Indonesia at 37.9% and West Manggarai Regency, where Labuan Bajo is located, reports a stunting rate of 36.2% (Kemenkes BKPK, 2023), which, according to WHO classifications, is categorized as high (>20%). Stunting reflects chronic malnutrition and deficiencies, leading to irreversible long-term health consequences (BPKRI, 2022). Alarmingly, despite this high nutritional burden, large amounts of edible food continue to be wasted.

Preventing and reducing food waste that is still fit for consumption is a highly effective strategy to improve food security, particularly by increasing access to nutritious food for vulnerable groups such as elder, children, and women-headed household (Ngumbela et al., 2020). A study in West Java indicated that if food waste could be reduced by 50%, rice availability would increase by 643,930 tons per year (Fatimah et al., 2022). These findings suggest that the potential for food recovery could be significantly amplified if similar policies and interventions were widely implemented across other regions.

Food waste represents the loss of substantial embedded resources, including energy, labor, seeds, water, as well as capital and operational expenditures associated with distribution and consumption. When food is left unconsumed, these resources are irretrievably wasted. Moreover, additional expenses are incurred for the collection, transportation, and treatment of discarded materials. Such inefficiencies not only reduce the availability of vital resources but also impose significant economic losses across the entire food supply chain (World Resource Institute, 2016).

In Labuan Bajo, the real and potential economic losses from food waste are estimated to reach IDR 61 billion (≈USD 3.7 million) and IDR 95 billion (≈USD 5.7 million) per year, respectively as shown in Table 8, equivalent to 1.4% and 2.2% of the regional GDP or comparable to the cost of IDR 4,255 billion (≈USD 255.6 million) (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Manggarai Barat, 2025).

According to 2023 data from Statistics Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Manggarai Barat, 2023), the average monthly per capita expenditure on food in West Manggarai Regency is IDR 541,077 (≈USD 32.50). Meanwhile, the estimated monthly per capita loss from food waste in Labuan Bajo households amounts to IDR 79,517 (≈USD 4.78). This suggests that approximately 15% of household food expenditure is potentially lost due to food waste. This percentage is lower than findings from a study in Daegu, South Korea, where household food waste losses reached up to 32% of food expenditure (Adelodun et al., 2021). The difference may be due to the fact that most households in Labuan Bajo are not yet subject to waste transport fees, which reduces their financial burden for waste management.

Although only approximately 25% of food waste in Labuan Bajo is ultimately disposed of at the landfill, the total cost of transporting such waste has already exceeded IDR 1.4 billion (≈USD 84,100). This cost could be substantially higher in regions where the majority of food waste is directly sent to landfill. Beyond the financial burden, landfilling remains the least efficient and least sustainable waste management option (Slorach et al., 2019). Nevertheless, some stakeholders, particularly business operators, have voiced concerns over the requirement to pay waste management fees. As one speedboat crew member explained: “Most of our leftover food and plastic waste is already collected by local residents, so very little remains. Still, we are required to pay the waste fee because it is a prerequisite for obtaining a travel permit.”

It is therefore more advantageous to divert food waste toward higher-value treatment pathways, as exemplified by current practices in Labuan Bajo, where food waste is repurposed as animal feed and waste cooking oil is converted into biodiesel. Resources presently allocated for waste transport and incineration fuel could be more effectively invested in processing food waste into value-added products, such as bioenergy, bioplastics, biosurfactants, or other bioactive compounds with commercial potential, thereby contributing to the advancement of the circular economy (Liu et al., 2023). Nonetheless, prevention remains the most effective and efficient strategy, both economically and environmentally, when compared to all other waste treatment options (Slorach et al., 2019).

Based on interview findings, the drivers of food waste can be grouped into three main categories: consumer internal, food management, and food quality and safety standards factors. These categories encompass a total of 13 specific drivers, as presented in Table 9.

Within the consumer internal factors category, drivers include consumer food preferences, physiological conditions such as old age and chewing difficulties, cultural and behavioral eating patterns, purchasing behavior, and perceptions of food safety. These findings highlight that consumer-generated food waste results from a complex interplay of internal and external factors. Social, individual, and behavioral aspects are influenced by motivation (awareness, subjective norms, and attitudes), opportunity (access and supporting infrastructure), and ability (knowledge and skills) to manage food-related behaviors (Wakefield and Axon, 2024).

Under the food management category, food waste often arises from inefficient food handling, suboptimal preparation practices, inaccurate sales forecasting, low-quality raw materials, and human error. Therefore, the responsibility for food waste cannot be placed solely on consumers. A case study of five HORECA (Hotels, Restaurants, Cafés/Catering) businesses in Malaysia found that internal policies and operational practices systematically contribute to food waste. Kitchen waste was the largest contributor, followed by unserved food and plate waste (Papargyropoulou et al., 2019). Demand uncertainty also emerged as a primary cause of overproduction. In this context, data-driven menu planning and flexible menu design that incorporate surplus edible food have proven effective in reducing food waste, lowering ingredient costs by 4%, and decreasing environmental impacts by 11–19% (Remijnse et al., 2025).

Beyond the business sector, food management also affects household-level food waste, alongside sociodemographic factors, since effective consumption planning requires adequate knowledge and skills (Veselá et al., 2023). Among the 21 household respondents, 18 were women, underscoring their predominant role in food management from preparation and cooking to waste handling. With most men working outside the home, women’s roles are central for sustaining daily food practices and meeting the nutritional needs of children and the elderly, while also minimizing food waste.

The third category, food quality and safety standards, includes drivers such as concerns about food safety risks, high market standards, and strict internal operating procedures. In addition, consumer behavior that prioritizes aesthetic appeal drives retailers to adopt strict visual standards, thereby increasing food waste (Jayathilake et al., 2022). While some good practices for food waste prevention and management were observed among respondents, each driver requires tailored interventions that consider the specific context of each food waste-generating unit. Therefore, prevention strategies must be designed holistically, incorporating managerial and operational aspects of food businesses, along with behavioral changes tied to social norms and practices (Papargyropoulou et al., 2019).

Lastly, another important factor influencing food waste is the nature of tourism destinations. In tourist-heavy areas, fluctuating demand, buffet and all-you-can-eat offerings, and the diverse preferences of multinational guests often lead businesses to prepare excess food, some of which remains uneaten. These dynamics add complexity to food waste management, as businesses must anticipate unpredictable customer numbers and cater to varied tastes, which can result in overproduction and increased plate waste. Addressing these challenges requires interventions that consider both operational planning and customer behavior within the tourism context. Various measures proposed to address this waste include improving food literacy, moderating food preparation according to actual demand, recognizing sustainable practices through business awards, and promoting innovative initiatives like zero-waste restaurants (Delgado et al., 2023).