In Jordan, the concrete sector has seen significant developments in recent years. The market for ready-mixed concrete and factory-made mortars in Jordan has been experiencing growth, with Italy being the largest supplier, accounting for 44% of total imports. Other key suppliers include the United Arab Emirates (17%) and China (14%). Notably, the largest markets for Jordanian exports of these products are Iraq, Palestine, and India, accounting for 76% of total exports (Indexbox, 2024). The Jordanian market has also shown notable trends regarding building blocks and bricks of cement, concrete, or artificial stone.

The United Arab Emirates is the largest supplier to Jordan in this category, comprising 62% of total imports, followed by Saudi Arabia (12%) and the Czech Republic (11%). On the export front, Qatar is the leading market for Jordan's exports in this category, making up 75% of total exports. The United States holds the second position, with a 15% share (Indexbox, 2024). Price-wise, in 2022, the average export price for ready-mixed concrete and factory-made mortars in Jordan was $506 per ton, while the import price for the same stood at $466 per ton. For building blocks and bricks of cement, concrete, or artificial stone, the average export price was $163 per ton, and the import price was $255 per ton (Indexbox, 2024).

In nations like the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Oman, the construction industry flourishes, engendering a vigorous demand for building materials (Jomaa, 2023). There has been a notable recovery and growth following initial slowdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular acceleration in sectors like residential and commercial construction, driven by low-interest rates and a shift toward suburban living in some regions. Additionally, infrastructure stimulus packages have been significant growth drivers in numerous countries.

The Middle East construction industry has an observable trend toward sustainable and eco-friendly materials (Sustainability Me News, 2023). Consequently, green construction, which focuses on efficiency and sustainability, is on the rise (Sustainability Me News, 2023). Materials such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), bamboo, and recycled materials are gaining popularity (GIZ, 2021). Despite this shift, concrete still dominates the market, and to provide a comprehensive understanding, it is important to introduce green concrete and discuss its properties, cost, and environmental impact.

Green concrete is an environmentally friendly version of traditional concrete, made from waste materials or those with a reduced carbon footprint (Cove.tool, 2023). It includes the use of industrial by-products like fly ash, silica fume, and slag cement, thereby reducing the need for virgin materials (Cove.tool, 2023). Furthermore, the properties of green concrete make it a viable and sustainable alternative in the construction industry (Cove.tool, 2023).

In terms of properties, green concrete often shows improved durability compared to traditional concrete due to the inclusion of supplementary cementitious materials (Sivakrishna et al., 2020), It typically offers similar or slightly lower compressive strength than conventional concrete, depending on the mix proportions, Additionally, the workability of green concrete can be adjusted using admixtures to meet specific construction needs (Sivakrishna et al., 2020). Regarding cost, the initial cost of green concrete can be higher due to the use of special materials and admixtures (Nilimaa, 2023). However, the long-term savings from reduced maintenance and increased durability can offset these initial expenses (Nilimaa, 2023). Over its lifecycle, green concrete can be more cost-effective due to its durability and reduced need for repairs (Estévez, 2006; Cementra, 2018; Reis, 2021; Thomas et al., 2022; Sheldon, 2023). The environmental impact of green concrete is significantly beneficial, It reduces the carbon footprint by utilizing industrial by-products, which decreases the demand for Portland cement—a major source of CO₂ emissions (Goggins, 2024). The production process of green concrete consumes less energy compared to traditional concrete, contributing to energy conservation (Cove.tool, 2023). By incorporating waste materials, green concrete helps in reducing landfill waste and promote recycling. As shown in Table 1, green concrete and traditional concrete differ significantly in terms of their properties, cost, and environmental impact.

The construction market in Jordan, including both national and foreign companies, features a dynamic mix of local expertise and international influence (Times, 2023). Local firms like Manaseer Group and Cementra have deep insights into the domestic market. Manaseer Group, established in 1999, has grown significantly, now operating in various sectors including infrastructure, energy, and building materials.

They produce a range of cement and concrete products, contributing extensively to the local construction industry (Manaseer, 2020). On the other hand, foreign companies such as LafargeHolcim also play a significant role in Jordan. LafargeHolcim, as Jordan's largest cement and concrete producer, operates two major cement plants and several concrete plants across the country, providing substantial production capacity and contributing to major construction projects (Oxford Business Group, 2018).

The participation of foreign companies is influenced by local regulations, market openness, and economic conditions. For example, Jordan has policies that encourage a minimum participation of local firms in construction projects to foster domestic business growth and facilitate the adoption of international best practices (Oxford Business Group, 2018). Jordan's construction sector is geared toward addressing not only large-scale infrastructure projects but also housing needs and technological advancements, despite facing challenges such as resource limitations. These efforts are part of a broader trend in the Middle East, where countries are investing heavily in innovative city projects and infrastructure (Oxford Business Group, 2018).

In terms of waste management, Jordan, like many of its neighbors, is grappling with the need for improved practices and infrastructure to handle construction waste sustainably. Concrete waste from construction and demolition activities has become a significant environmental issue. The improper disposal of concrete waste creates visual pollution and poses severe threats to the environment and human health. Therefore, effectively managing concrete waste has become a crucial global challenge for governments and stakeholders in the construction sector. As for the social risks, over the last few years, waste dump landslides have entombed residential structures and human lives (Farhat, 2018).

These waste disposal sites are primarily situated near areas facing economic difficulties, where residents depend on collecting and sorting waste to contribute to their city's recycling efforts. As a result, the vulnerable communities residing in these areas are at heightened risk of experiencing severe health consequences (Farhat, 2018). Jordan is a developing country in the Middle East that faces significant challenges in handling its waste, including concrete waste. The construction sector substantially supports the country's economy but also generates a large amount of waste, predominantly in concrete and steel, attributable to substandard quality control, high redoing work, and a lack of skilled labor (Al-rifai and Amoudi, 2016).

In Jordan, construction activities are responsible for producing 30 million tons of waste, which ends up in landfill sites. Additionally, the construction industry is a significant consumer of resources, representing 40% of the country's energy usage and 12% of its freshwater consumption while contributing to 40% of the solid waste generated annually (Alawneh et al., 2019).

Effective concrete waste management is crucial for Jordan's sustainable development and environmental protection. However, Jordan's current concrete waste management system needs to be improved. Most waste is disposed of in landfills, open dumping sites, or used as backfill materials in construction sites (Abu Hajar et al., 2021). Furthermore, the disposal of concrete waste in landfills contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change through several indirect mechanisms. Each of these mechanisms involves either the release of greenhouse gases, changes in land use, or both, which exacerbate climate change. Firstly, when concrete waste is disposed of in landfills, it often contains mixed materials, including organic debris.

As these organic materials decompose in an anaerobic environment (i.e., without oxygen), they emit methane—a greenhouse gas that is significantly more potent than carbon dioxide in terms of its warming potential. This gas release significantly adds to the landfill's overall emissions (EPA, 2024). Additionally, the establishment of landfills typically necessitates significant land use changes, such as the clearing of forests or other natural habitats. These areas, especially forests, are vital for carbon sequestration; they absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When they are cleared, not only is this carbon storage capacity lost, but the carbon stored in the vegetation is also released back into the atmosphere, further contributing to greenhouse gas concentrations (Rodrigo-Ilarri et al., 2022). In addition, transportation also plays a role. The process of transporting concrete waste to landfill sites itself generates carbon emissions.

Concrete is notably heavy and bulky, meaning that transporting it is energy-intensive and leads to substantial fuel consumption, thus increasing carbon dioxide emissions from the vehicles used in its transport. The Climate Change Connection elaborates on the emissions from transportation activities (Kooshian, 2023). Furthermore, The operational aspects of landfills also contribute to emissions. The equipment used for managing landfills, including compactors and bulldozers, generally operates on fossil fuels. The operation of this machinery releases additional CO₂ into the atmosphere, adding to the environmental impact (Manfredi et al., 2009). Lastly, the disposal of concrete waste represents a missed opportunity for recycling. Concrete can be recycled and reused in various constructions, thereby reducing the demand for new concrete production—a process that is notably carbon-intensive. By recycling concrete, we can avoid the emissions associated with producing new materials and make better use of the embodied carbon (the carbon dioxide emitted during the production of the concrete). These points are further elaborated in Table 2, which outlines the key environmental impacts of disposing of concrete waste in landfills.

In Jordan, nearly half of the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is allocated to Al-Ghabawi Landfill, the solitary regulated landfill near Amman's capital. The rest is haphazardly deposited across 17 unstructured dumpsites dispersed among the nation's governorates (Abu Hajar et al., 2020). These sites do not possess the necessary environmental safeguards such as protective linings, leachate collection systems, or facilities for biogas extraction (Abu Hajar et al., 2020).

Additionally, the reuse, recycling, and recovery concept must be developed more within Jordan's waste management framework. A pronounced deficit in public awareness regarding waste management and recycling practices further exacerbates this situation. The government and private organizations are taking measures to address the solid waste issue, mainly focusing on MSW.

However, concrete waste is largely ignored by the Jordanian government. For example, The Jordanian Ministry of Environment ratified the “Waste Management Framework Law” for 2020. According to Article 16 of this law, “An establishment generating over one thousand (1,000) tons of nonhazardous waste annually, or any quantity of hazardous waste (excluding construction and demolition waste), must devise a waste management plan” (Ministry of Environment, 2020). Given this regulation, there is a growing need for enhanced efforts to manage the increasing volumes of waste effectively in Jordan.

The lack of proper planning, regulations, and weak enforcement have also contributed to the problem (Abu-Qdais et al., 2023). For example, the Municipalities Law, Public Health Law, and Environmental Protection Law, are general and only outline the responsible agency for waste management, fees, and fines for non-compliance, While these laws provide a foundational framework for waste management, their broad nature often results in implementation challenges. The effectiveness of these regulations is contingent on the law's specifics and the violation's nature. However, due to the general nature of some regulations, there can be difficulties in enforcement and ambiguity regarding the precise fines and penalties for non-compliance. This gap highlights the pressing need for more detailed guidelines and rigorous enforcement to effectively manage construction waste in Jordan.

However recently the Jordan government ratified a set of legislations and policies. One of these policies is the national strategy for managing solid waste, which aims to streamline management practices, introduce incremental fee increases, and incorporate circular economy solutions by 2034 (Abu-Qdais et al., 2023). However, the Jordanians still face the same problem because the primary focus was Solid waste management (SWM), not concrete waste. To have a full image of the waste management issues, it should explore the impacts of concrete waste from different perspectives. From an environmental perspective, concrete waste contributes to land degradation, pollution of water resources, and soil contamination.

In addition, the improper disposal of concrete waste can release toxic chemicals and greenhouse gases (Vaverková et al., 2019), As the heavy Metals Leaching, concrete waste often contains heavy metals such as lead, chromium, and arsenic. These metals can leach into soil and groundwater, contaminating water sources and posing health risks to humans and wildlife (EPA, 1992). In addition, when concrete waste decomposes, it undergoes carbonation, where CO₂ from the atmosphere reacts with calcium hydroxide in the concrete to form calcium carbonate.

While this process can absorb some CO₂, it is not sufficient to offset the emissions produced during cement manufacturing. Research indicates that the net effect remains a positive contribution to CO₂ emissions, exacerbating climate change (EPA, 1999). From a social perspective, concrete waste significantly impacts the quality of life of local communities (Tafesse et al., 2022). This waste can cause physical health problems like respiratory and skin irritation (Poole and Basu, 2017). It can also increase crime rates as informal landfills become a criminal activity haven (Carrington, 2016). Also, occupational risks occur at every stage in the waste management process in the informal sector, from where workers handle waste in the enterprises for collection or recycling to ultimate disposal (Jerie, 2016). In addition, manual handling tasks dominate solid waste management practices, hence the higher incidents of muscular-skeleta disorders (Jerie, 2016). Other safety and health hazards associated with waste management in informal enterprises include diarrhea, viral hepatitis, and higher incidents of obstructive and restrictive disorders (Jerie, 2016).

In Jordan, improper construction waste disposal, particularly concrete, poses significant environmental threats, including pollution, soil, water, and air degradation. This issue is not unique to Jordan but is also prevalent in other developed countries (Tafesse et al., 2022). Findings from previous studies have shown the impact of construction waste in Jordan. The volume of waste received at the 17 landfills in Jordan was estimated to be approximately 1,662,939 tons in 2019. The total municipal solid waste generated by the residential population reached 2.6 million tons in 2015 (Atyyat, 2020). Managing construction and demolition (C&D) waste in Jordan faces several challenges. Nearly half of the total C&D waste generated is informal dumped, significantly impacting the environment (Alkhraisha, 2023). Strategies to handle these challenges and improve waste management practices in Jordan are outlined in Table 3.

Despite the necessity of sorting for effective solid waste management, the current system in Jordan mainly focuses on collection and disposal, without an adequate sorting (Al-rifai and Amoudi, 2016). In addition, Annually, Jordan issues construction permits encompassing approximately 11.8 million square meters, leading to a significant amount of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. There are no adequate strategies or plans to effectively handle and manage this waste (GIZ, 2014). Furthermore, it is reported that Jordan generates 2.6 million tons of solid municipal waste per year, growing annually by 5%. Only 7% of the MSW is recycled or salvaged, mainly by the informal sector (Dwarkasing, 2019).

Thousands of scavengers usually collect waste fractions of marketing value directly from the MSW collection containers dispatched over the urban cities. Then, they sort the MSW delivered to the official landfill or dumpsites through a contractual framework, but most of Jordan's waste goes untreated in landfills (UNEP, 2019). CDM Smith, one of the international privately owned engineering and construction is trying to change this situation by providing professional expertise to support the recycling of reusable materials and relieve the pressure on local landfill sites while saving resources and reducing greenhouse gases (Municipality Greater Amman, 2020).

The Jordanian government is limited in its measures to handle construction waste because, to this moment, recycling or separation initiatives and infrastructure have not been integrated into Jordan's public municipal solid waste management chain and systems. Furthermore, when the construction work is done, the waste material is piled up beside the road, in places that are not allowed or near the site.

However, the contractors collect the broken concrete and bury it under the foundations of new buildings, steel and wood are carefully retrieved; the steel is either processed by hand, used again, or sold to scrapyards as scrap metal and the wood is collected for fuel or ground into small pieces and sold to chicken farms as bedding. Finally, anything that can be salvaged from the building, like doors, frames, windows, roof tiles, and bathroom fixtures, is collected and sold to secondhand dealers (Saidan and Drais, 2016).

In light of the ostensible apathy exhibited by the formal sector toward the concrete recycling industry, the fiscal advantages of repurposing concrete in Jordan have been delineated as a viable strategy to bolster landfill infrastructure and augment the standard of living, particularly for those operating within the informal economy. This perspective is substantiated by a publication disseminated by the United Nations Development Programme in Jordan (Dwarkasing, 2019), where formalizing the informal waste recycling and materials recovery sector has become an economic opportunity, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Dwarkasing, 2019).

Therefore, formalizing the sector and improving the recycling infrastructure in Jordan can have significant economic benefits and contribute to the country's sustainable development, but can also have negative effects in some sectors. Recycling concrete offers significant economic benefits by reducing the need for new concrete production, a costly and resource-intensive process.

Although no studies about the economic benefits of concrete recycling for Jordan, parallels could be drawn with other contexts. For instance, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), recycling and reuse actions in the US accounted for 681,000 jobs, $37.8 billion in wages, and generated local and state tax revenues (EPA United State environmental Protection Agency, 2023). In addition to the economic advantages, using recycled materials to replace even a small portion of concrete can significantly reduce the global carbon footprint of the cement industry, a major carbon emitter worldwide.

For instance, in the European Union, initiatives like the GREEN-FRC project have focused on creating sustainable concrete solutions by incorporating recycled and waste materials, aiming for a greener future in construction (Eurupean Commission, 2022). Countries like Japan and Canada also actively invest in concrete recycling technologies to mitigate environmental impacts. Beyond immediate environmental benefits, these efforts can lead to long-term economic advantages, including reduced raw materials costs and decreased environmental remediation expenses (Shima et al., 2005; Kizuna, 2022; Minister of Industry in Canda, 2022). By lessening the reliance on new cement production, which contributes significantly to CO₂ emissions, countries can advance toward their climate change targets and promote a more sustainable construction sector globally.

A monumental shift toward recycling concrete in Jordan, analogous to the gains observed in the offer considerable economic benefits. Yet, this transition may encounter resistance from stakeholders in the formal sector. Their reluctance, rooted in vested interests in conventional concrete production methods, which may be more lucrative, could impede the evolution of the recycling industry and perpetuate dependency on intensive resource usage methods. Additionally, the environmental repercussions cannot be overlooked. However, a preference for immediate profit over enduring sustainability within the industry may exacerbate ecological degradation. The lack of substantial investment in recycling infrastructure or the absence of stringent regulatory frameworks could further entrench detrimental practices.

Regarding social dynamics, the informal sector is pivotal in waste recycling and material recovery. Formalizing this sector could enhance living standards and create economic opportunities. Nevertheless, if integrating these informal entities with the formal sector is ineffectual, it might exacerbate social inequalities and overlook potential avenues for inclusive growth. Furthermore, mismanagement of waste disposal by informal operators may pose environmental and health risks. However, several sources discuss the benefits of concrete recycling in general, which may be suitable for Jordan. For example, Japan faced the same problem as Jordan fifty years ago, during Japan's modernization period, waste was managed by individuals who produced it or private operators gathering it and extracting valuable materials for sale (Ministry of the Environment, 2014).

However, these operators often dispose of the remaining waste in unsanitary ways, such as dumping it on roadsides or empty spaces, resulting in hazardous waste accumulation (Ministry of the Environment, 2014). Furthermore, in the aftermath of the war, Japan had to confront the challenge of managing urban waste (Ministry of the Environment, 2014). This put municipalities in a difficult position against the expansion of waste-related problems, necessitating a revamp in waste management.

The conclusion emphasizes that recycling concrete in Jordan offers considerable economic benefits, such as enhanced landfill infrastructure, improved living standards, especially in the informal sector, and reduced CO₂ emissions, despite potential resistance from stakeholders and the need for investment in recycling infrastructure and regulatory frameworks.

Recycled concretes are produced by crushing and processing concrete waste from demolished structures, such as buildings, bridges, and roads (Silva et al., 2014). The process typically involves removing reinforcing steel and other impurities and crushing the concrete into smaller aggregate pieces (Ghorbani et al., 2019). These recycled aggregates can replace natural aggregates in new concrete mixtures, providing similar or improved properties to conventional concrete (Silva et al., 2014). This approach aligns with the principles of the circular economy, which emphasizes the reuse and recycling of materials to minimize waste and reduce environmental impact (Ghisellini, 2016). The steps involved in the concrete recycling process are depicted in Figure 1.

The properties of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), such as compressive strength, particle size distribution, water absorption rate, and specific gravity, significantly influence its suitability. For instance, recycled aggregate concrete typically exhibits compressive strength ranging from 20 to 35 MPa, depending on the quality of the recycled materials used (Yehia et al., 2015). Additionally, the water absorption rate of recycled aggregates, which can be as high as 3%, is higher compared to natural aggregates, affecting the concrete's overall durability and workability. These properties are influenced by the original conditions of the demolished structures and the recycling process (Kim et al., 2020). Recycled aggregate is a viable alternative to natural aggregate, offering environmental benefits and contributing to sustainable development.

However, variability in the properties of recycled aggregate, influenced by factors such as the quality of materials being collected and delivered to recycling plants, poses challenges. Ensuring the consistent production of high-quality recycled aggregate remains a complex task due to these factors (Kim et al., 2020).

Durability and long-term performance: durability is a critical factor affecting the long-term performance of RAC. Various research efforts have focused on evaluating recycled aggregate's physical and mechanical properties and its impact on concrete durability. Challenges in enhancing the durability of RAC include high porosity, absorption capacity, and the presence of contaminants. These issues can lead to a reduction in mechanical properties and affect the concrete's fresh-stage properties.

However, strategies such as achieving saturated surface dry conditions, using supplementary cementitious materials, and considering aggregate absorption during mix design can improve RAC's properties. Using materials like fly ash, silica fume, and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag has improved strength and durability by enhancing the pore structure and reducing the macro pores (Yehia et al., 2015).

Microstructural analysis: scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) scans have been used to investigate the microstructural features of RAC, particularly focusing on the interfacial transition zone between the cement paste and the recycled aggregate. These studies reveal insights into the concrete's bond strength and potential weaknesses. For example, a porous layer was observed at the interfacial transition zone in mixes with high chloride ion permeability, contributing to higher absorption and permeability. Understanding these microstructural characteristics is crucial for improving the long-term performance of RAC (Yehia et al., 2015). As illustrated in Figure 2, the schematic diagram of interfacial transition zones (ITZs) provides a visual representation of these critical areas.

A study in Iraq, a country with similar regional characteristics to Jordan, demonstrated the feasibility of recycling concrete from construction and demolition waste; the study “Environmental Management Guidelines for Debris Recycling Sites in Iraq” by UNEP provides a framework for managing debris recycling operations in an environmentally safe and effective manner. These guidelines were developed in response to the substantial amount of rubble generated in Iraq. They emphasize debris recycling as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly option. The guidelines aim to promote a wider circular economy approach, integrating the recycling and reuse of construction and demolition waste in the sector (U. N. Environmental Program, 2020).

Furthermore, A comprehensive study in Egypt explored the application of recycled construction and demolition waste in new construction projects. The study, highlighted the technical and economic feasibility of using recycled aggregates in concrete production. The findings indicated that recycled concrete could meet local construction standards, providing a sustainable alternative to natural aggregates. The study also pointed out the challenges faced, such as the need for improved sorting and processing facilities, which are crucial for ensuring the quality of recycled materials (Attia, 2020).

Globally, the practice of recycling concrete is gaining traction. A five-year study showed that recycled concrete can perform well or even better than conventional concrete in building foundations and municipal sidewalks (GCR Staff, 2020). This finding suggests a potential for recycled concrete's use in structural applications, a trend observed in several countries. For example, the German Committee for Structural Concrete limits the proportion of recycled aggregate to 45%. However, tests in Switzerland have shown high-quality concrete can be produced with over 90% recycled aggregates.

This indicates the viability of recycled concrete in maintaining structural integrity (Souza, 2020). In the United States, the Federal Highway Administration has been promoting the use of recycled materials in road construction. A key report, “Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in PCCP: Literature Search,” outlined how recycled concrete aggregates could be successfully used in concrete pavements.

The report highlighted significant cost savings and environmental benefits, demonstrating that recycled concrete could effectively replace a portion of virgin aggregate without compromising the structural performance of pavements (Keith and Anderson, 2009). Moreover, countries worldwide are standardizing the use of recycled concrete in structural applications, acknowledging its sustainability benefits. The composition of recycled concrete, which typically replaces the natural aggregate in new concrete, lends it adaptability and flexibility, making it suitable for retaining walls, roads, sidewalks, and increasingly structural components (University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, 2020).

Considering these international practices and studies, adopting recycled concrete in Jordan appears feasible and promising. The benefits include not only environmental gains by reducing the extraction of natural resources but also potential improvements in the structural quality of concrete. Jordan could look to these global examples to develop guidelines and standards for using recycled concrete in various construction applications, tailoring the approach to local conditions and requirements. In addition, the management of construction and demolition waste presents multifaceted challenges.

A study exploring this issue identified several causes for increased waste and barriers to implementing effective management strategies. A primary concern is inadequate waste management infrastructure, including physical facilities and regulations. This situation contributes to unsustainable practices, such as inefficient use of raw materials. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach considering infrastructure, economic conditions, and skilled labor availability (Alshdiefat et al., 2023).

The conclusion emphasizes that recycling concrete in Jordan is a viable alternative with the potential for similar or improved technical properties over conventional concrete, advocating for further research and development to adapt to local conditions and drawing parallels with global practices that showcase the successful application and environmental benefits of recycled concrete in structural uses.

A preeminent advantage of waste reduction is the mitigation of the voluminous refuse accumulated in landfills. These waste repositories have deleterious consequences on the environment and human wellbeing. As refuse undergoes decomposition within these landfill sites, it generates methane gas—a highly potent greenhouse gas (United State Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).

Over a century, the heat-trapping capacity of methane has been 28–36 times more efficacious than that of carbon dioxide, thus exacerbating climate change and adversely impacting the atmospheric equilibrium (United State Environmental Protection Agency, 2024) and contributing to climate change. Furthermore, Landfills can contaminate groundwater and soil with hazardous chemicals and pollutants, harming human health and wildlife. However, landfills can negatively impact the environment and human health, with one major problem being leachate (Bausback, 2016b). Leachate is a liquid that forms when landfill waste breaks down, and water filters through that waste and picks up toxins. Rain falling on the top of the landfill is the most significant contributor to leachate, and groundwater entering the landfill can also produce leachate. This liquid can contaminate groundwater and soil with hazardous chemicals and pollutants, harming human health and wildlife (Iravanian and Ravari, 2020).

Another environmental benefit of concrete recycling is reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The recycling process generates fewer emissions than producing new concrete and conserves natural resources, such as water, minerals, and energy, used to make new concrete. Mitigating the environmental impact of landfills involves strategies to reduce waste volume and manage leachate. Recycling concrete, for example, can help by reducing the volume of waste directed to landfills and subsequently decreasing the production of leachate (Bausback, 2016a). Concrete recycling not only prevents additional waste from entering landfills but also mitigates the formation of methane by reducing organic material.

This process generates fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to producing new concrete and conserves natural resources like water, minerals, and energy that would otherwise be used in the production of new concrete (N. R. Association, 2018). Consequently, recycling efforts contribute to minimizing landfill-related contamination and mitigating the negative environmental impacts associated with landfill waste (U. S. Agency, 2024).

Concrete recycling presents a combination of direct environmental and indirect economic benefits. One notable advantage is the potential for job creation within the recycling industry, which not only stimulates local economies but also improves the livelihoods of individuals in the community. According to the National Solid Waste Strategy in Jordan, the formalization of the informal waste recycling and materials recovery sector is viewed as an economic opportunity to sustain landfill infrastructure and improve the livelihoods of many impoverished individuals (Dwarkasing, 2019).

A practical example of these benefits can be seen in the case of São Sebastião in Brazil. Here, the informal waste sector has been successfully integrated into the formal economy, yielding significant social, economic, and environmental advantages. Waste pickers, known locally as “catadores,” have organized into cooperatives, receiving formal recognition and support from both public and private entities. This shift has resulted in improved income, better working conditions, and significant poverty reduction (Lima and Mancini, 2017). The integration has also fostered economic stability and social inclusion for these typically marginalized groups.

Environmentally, the contributions of the catadores have been substantial. Their efforts in efficient waste collection, sorting, and recycling help preserve resources and reduce landfill usage, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, these activities promote community education on sustainable waste management practices (Lima and Mancini, 2017). The São Sebastião case exemplifies how the transformation of informal sectors can lead to impactful contributions to local economies and environmental sustainability.

In conclusion, concrete recycling significantly reduces landfill use and greenhouse gas emissions while providing a range of hybrid environmental and economic benefits. These include resource conservation, job creation, and the formal integration of informal waste sectors, all of which contribute to the enhancement of local economies and the promotion of environmental sustainability.