Fishing is a principal global activity, providing 17% of animal protein to almost half of the world’s population (FAO, 2020). It also generates significant employment and income and contributes to the socioeconomic development of coastal communities (FAO, 2020). Approximately 500 million people depend entirely or partially on small-scale marine fisheries, which produce a catch valued at USD 58 billion (Schuhbauer and Sumalia, 2016; FAO, 2018; FAO, Duke University, and World Fish, 2023). Fishing communities are instrumental in upholding the sustainability of marine resources, ensuring food security, and fostering economic development in coastal regions worldwide; this influence is especially pronounced within oceanic island nations and rural coastal communities across Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Bell et al., 2018; Salas et al., 2019; FAO, 2020; García-Lorenzo et al., 2021; March and Failler, 2022). As stewards of the oceans, these communities rely on marine resources for their livelihoods and actively contribute to their conservation and management (Fulton et al., 2019; Quintana and Basurto, 2021). As primary stakeholders, they possess invaluable traditional knowledge and expertise in marine resource management acquired through generations of interaction with the oceans. This local knowledge is often crucial for understanding ecosystem dynamics, migratory patterns, and sustainable fishing practices (Narchi et al., 2014; Narchi et al., 2024). However, these communities face continuous challenges from resource overexploitation, socioenvironmental change, and economic pressure. In this context, it is vital to promote agents of change in future generations and encourage knowledge transfer to ensure the future of these communities is sustainable and prosperous (Espinoza-Tenorio et al., 2022).

Small-scale fisher’s knowledge determines how to access fishing resources, what environments are most suitable for their activities, how to interact with ecosystems, and how to conduct sustainable management (Berkes, 2013). Fishers have deep-rooted connections with their environments and deeply understand the natural world (Begossi et al., 2016; Garavito-Bermudez and Lundholm, 2017; Garavito-Bermudez, 2020a; Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2020; Garavito-Bermudez and Boonstra, 2022). In addition, they hold fundamental knowledge of fishing techniques, capture areas, and tool-building and understand environmental dynamics from traditional knowledge passed down through the generations (Garavito-Bermudez, 2020b; Garavito-Bermudez and Boonstra, 2022; Ovung et al., 2022). This knowledge enables individuals to fully utilize their local environments, considering the ecological dynamics of their coasts and the natural resources available (Maharja et al., 2023).

Traditional ecological knowledge refers to the “cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, transmitted culturally from generation to generation, of the relationships of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” (Berkes, 1993). This knowledge includes language, naming and classification systems, resource-use practices, rituals, spirituality, and worldviews (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2014). Scientific knowledge is established through methodical observation and experimentation conducted using a rigorous scientific method to explain observed events (Carey and Smith, 1993; Sells et al., 2018). This knowledge is transmitted among researchers through oral tradition and written technical language texts. These texts must be presented with precision and reproducibility to ensure the information can be analyzed and discussed in the context of refuted hypotheses (Nagel, 1961). In both cases, the information is a valuable resource necessary to solve problems, make decisions, and develop adaptive capabilities (Mazzocchi, 2006; Ogar et al., 2020).

A dialogue between traditional and scientific ecological knowledge holders can lead to new perspectives and help advance scientific research and effective management responses for coastal areas and natural resource use (International Council for Science, 2002). Therefore, researchers should try to understand traditional communities’ cultures, concepts, customs, and regional rituals. This involves immersing themselves in community life, learning from traditional ecological knowledge held by community members, and sharing that knowledge with the scientific community (Patzlaff and Peixoto, 2009; Hurlbert et al., 2019; IUCN, 2022). To address the uncertainty and complexity surrounding current environmental problems and their possible solutions, scientific and traditional knowledge, specifically in decision-making, has to be incorporated (Wheeler and Root-Bernstein, 2020). To achieve this, both types of knowledge must be available, legitimized, and transmitted from generation to generation. However, within fishing communities and external actors’ involvement, the processes and pathways through which information is transferred are insufficiently documented and may vary between communities and age groups. Specifically, when considering the dynamics, traditions, and processes unique to each community, the ways and means by which individuals perceive and transmit information can be influenced by various factors.

In studies focused on the transfer of cultural and traditional knowledge, four transfer types have been identified (Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman, 1981; Calvet-Mir et al., 2016): (1) vertical (parent to child), (2) oblique (one older generation to another), (3) horizontal (within the same generation), and (4) retroactive (younger generations to older generations). The transfer of scientific and technical knowledge can also occur by actors external to a community through various forms of media (Mattalia et al., 2020; Garavito-Bermudez, 2020a,b; Okui et al., 2021).

In Mexico, coastal communities are characterized by a long fishing tradition (Cisneros-Montemayor and Cisneros-Mata, 2018). Throughout their history, fishers have faced both favorable and challenging fishing and climatic conditions and diverse sociocultural, political, and economic contexts (Álvarez et al., 2018; Cisneros-Montemayor and Cisneros-Mata, 2018; Delgado-Ramírez et al., 2023). Thus, through the generations, fishers have generated and transmitted knowledge that has allowed them to respond to these challenges to ensure the continuity of their fishing cultures and livelihoods.

Limited research has been conducted on transmitting traditional and scientific fishing knowledge among and to community members (e.g., Young et al., 2016; Garavito-Bermudez, 2020a; Garavito-Bermudez and Boonstra, 2022). Here, we aim to answer how traditional and scientific fishing knowledge is transferred by identifying what is transferred, what has been lost, and what conservation and sustainability issues have been identified in communities. We investigated which media are most used by the small-scale fishing sector to obtain scientific and technical knowledge. Furthermore, we explored the extent to which external actors transfer knowledge within communities.

The interviewees were selected using non-probabilistic methods by adapting and combining chain reference techniques, such as snowballing, directed sampling, and purposive sampling. These systematic methods consist of selecting a specific population within the target group to recruit an adequate number of interviewees with the qualities and knowledge necessary to provide information on the topic of interest (Watters and Biernacki, 1989; Salganik and Heckathorn, 2004; Etikan et al., 2016).

We identified and selected a local community member to create a sampling recruitment network through the chain referral method. The first interviewees had previously collaborated with the authors and other external groups (e.g., conservation and fisheries governmental agencies, universities, and non-governmental organizations) that share scientific knowledge on different topics. This community member, called a “locator,” helped introduce the research team and explain the general idea of the research project to encourage participation. Each interviewer was introduced to the community or fishing cooperative leaders via a formal letter issued by Comunidad y Biodiversidad, A.C. which explained the purpose of the research and formally requested permission to spend time in the community and interview people.

We interviewed 79 men and 41 women in communities across three regions of Mexico (Figure 2). The interviewees’ ages ranged from 17 to 75 years. Young people between the ages of 17 and 29 years constituted 26% of the interviewees (19 M and 12 W), 69% were adults between the ages of 30 and 59 years (56 M and 27 W), and 5% were older adults of 60 years or older (4 M and 2 W). The interviewees conducted various activities related to the fishing value network and within their communities. In all, 46% participated in production (55 M), 15% in post-production (12 M and 6 W), 12% in complementary activities (3 M and 11 W), and 28% were not identified as part of the value network (Figure 2).

Transferring traditional and scientific ecological knowledge is essential for sociocultural and human development. This dynamic process helps preserve cultural heritage, allows people to adapt to local and global change, and improves the quality of life within communities.

Various studies have been developed at the global level to understand how traditional ecological knowledge is transferred, who transfers it, what topics are transferred, and what knowledge is lost between generations. However, these have mainly been conducted in Indigenous communities and have focused on traditional botanical knowledge (Saynes-Vasquez et al., 2016; Kitolelei et al., 2021; Narváez-Elizondo et al., 2021; Okui et al., 2021; Akhmar et al., 2023; Teshome et al., 2023). Nevertheless, few studies have been conducted on fisheries and knowledge transfer in non-indigenous fishing communities (Garavito-Bermudez, 2020a,b; Garavito-Bermudez and Boonstra, 2022). This study constitutes the first approach to evaluating the transfer of traditional ecological knowledge in small-scale fishing communities in Mexico.

The results show that knowledge transfer occurred in the three regions through only three of the four modes described by Calvet-Mir et al. (2016): (1) vertical transfer, (2) oblique transfer, and (3) horizontal transfer. Traditional ecological knowledge that was transferred encompassed fishing techniques and the use of gear, the construction and repair of fishing gear, species cycles, and navigation. None of the interviewees mentioned transferred knowledge from the youth. However, 20% of the adults expressed interest in learning about technological issues and new fisheries resources from young people (retroactively transferred).

A principal element that was transferred within communities was fishing as a profession. All interviewees declared that they had inherited this occupation from close relatives (vertical transmission) (Table 1). This transfer of the fishing profession has been documented in other fishing communities, and it is conducted by direct relatives, including grandfathers, grandmothers, fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, or older siblings (Garavito-Bermudez, 2020a).

Other studies on the transmission of traditional knowledge have observed a tendency for it to diminish or disappear over successive generations (Tang and Gavin, 2016; Aswani et al., 2018). This topic was brought up as a concern of adults and older adults, specifically the loss of the ability to navigate without instrumentation, the loss of ancestral fishing techniques, and the loss of an understanding of the relationships between oceanographic processes and biological species cycles (Table 1). The adult interviewees attributed knowledge loss to two reasons: high dependence on technology for navigation and disconnection between generations, as young people live full-time connected to cell phones or the internet and no longer acquire the knowledge of older people.

Knowledge is crucial for making informed decisions, personal development, empowerment, and professionalization within the fishing sector. It enables individuals to grow and tackle challenges that arise locally and globally. Knowledge transfer is essential for generating, maintaining, and updating current knowledge. In the three studied regions, knowledge transfer took place between community members and external actors who possessed scientific and technical knowledge. In addition, interviewees used audiovisual, printed, and digital media to access knowledge of interest. The studies have suggested that the knowledge acquired throughout a person’s life comes from a mixture of experiences and the diverse ways information is transferred over time (Aunger, 2000; Soldati and Albuquerque, 2016; Reyes-García et al., 2019).

Knowledge transfer is fundamental to the professionalization of people dedicated to fishing. The exchange of knowledge on selective fishing techniques, fishing gear, maneuvers, navigation, oceanographic processes, biological cycles, and fishery management tools notably contributes to preserving biodiversity and ensuring resource availability in the long term (Table 1). In addition, professionalization results in improved skills and technical knowledge, which translates into greater efficiency, allowing people in the sector to improve their performance, reduce environmental impacts, and limit waste. Training in occupational safety and techniques to prevent accidents and reduce risk at sea is also essential to professionalization, as it helps protect the lives and well-being of fishers so that they conduct their work safely. Furthermore, fishers can comply with regulations and contribute to marine conservation by being better informed about fishing regulations and laws.

Professionalization also opens opportunities for adopting new technologies and innovative approaches in fisheries. Fishers can learn about more efficient capture methods or the use of technology for navigation, how to face challenges, such as climate change, how to develop more secure administration, purchasing, and sales processes, and how to share decision-making information. Furthermore, professionalization elevates the status and recognition of fishers and their work in society, which encourages their work to be valued as vital for food security and the economies of many coastal communities.

People from various coastal communities in Mexico pointed out that institutions, organizations, researchers, and students come to their communities to conduct social, economic, or environmental studies. However, once information is collected, it is rarely returned to communities in the form of results. Instead, data tends to remain in theses and scientific articles, many of which are written in English and are difficult for local communities to access. Nonetheless, some governmental entities, CSOs, and academic actors have implemented social responsibility programs to return information to communities using different methods, such as face-to-face talks, workshops, brochures, reports, informative articles, posters, infographics, and videos that are distributed within communities and through social networks (e.g., Meza-Monge et al., 2015; Cuevas et al., 2021; CONAPESCA, 2022; CONANP, 2021; ECOSUR, 2022).

Promoting the dissemination of research results in communities by using the local language, organizing meetings to address concerns, and facilitating the expression of community opinions are responsibilities that agencies, researchers, and CSOs must assume. Likewise, identifying local perceptions regarding research and developing a common language between communities and researchers are tasks researchers and CSOs must conduct. Furthermore, creating a dialogue network to share perceptions among residents, traditional communities, academic actors, and public managers is the responsibility of researchers, local actors, CSOs, and public managers (Mfutso-Bengo et al., 2008).

Returning project and research results to communities is a mutually beneficial practice for both communities and researchers (Hintz and Dean, 2020). This practice reinforces the importance of community participants’ roles in citizen science. Moreover, it provides useful information for local decision-making, increases awareness of the effectiveness of research participation, and improves trust in the research and researchers (Fulton et al., 2019).

To ensure that the information generated by external actors is transferred to communities, it is important to tailor the material according to the age group and preferred means of receiving the information. The results show that young people tend to use digital media more (YouTube, websites, and Facebook), while adults prefer printed media (brochures and posters) and digital media (YouTube). In contrast, older adults prefer brochures, posters, and documentaries but need something digital.

In fishing communities, the continued transfer of traditional ecological, scientific, and technical knowledge through committed and trained agents of change who can address current and future challenges is vital. These agents must deeply understand the environmental, economic, and social problems that affect their communities and must be able to make informed and strategic decisions for the common good. These agents must transmit acquired knowledge, involve other fishers, and promote collective empowerment instead of only focusing on individual empowerment.

Training agents of change in future generations guarantees the continuity and renewal of fishing communities. As current generation agents retire, a new generation of leaders must emerge capable of effectively taking on leadership roles and addressing emerging challenges. To this end, knowledge transfer plays a vital role in the sustainability of fishing communities.

People in the communities in this study have accumulated traditional knowledge and practices over generations, which are fundamental to understanding marine ecosystems, climate patterns, species life cycles, and sustainable fishing practices. This ancestral knowledge is an invaluable treasure that provides a solid foundation for managing marine resources and conserving biodiversity properly. Combining traditional knowledge with scientific and technical knowledge is essential to addressing the complex challenges facing fishing communities and ensuring their future prosperity.