Improper waste disposal has always been a global concern (Selin, 2013; UN Environment, 2017; Sultanova et al., 2021). The rapid growth of industries, improved technologies, and standard of living are major factors that give rise to waste generation (Kurakalva et al., 2016; Sultanova et al., 2021). China, Mexico, and Brazil are among the countries with the problem of waste generation and the adverse impacts experienced in birth, death, and sickness in people (Getis et al., 2018; Kotze, 2020). In Japan, the World Bank has projected an increase of approximately 1.3 billion to 2.2 billion tonnes of waste generated yearly by 2025, meaning that the waste collection service rate will go far below 50%, leaving the area polluted and the rest of the uncollected waste discarded improperly (UN Environment, 2017).

Waste is classified in different forms including, municipal solid waste, industrial solid waste, and agricultural solid waste (Kwun Omang et al., 2021). However, improper waste disposal causes air, soil, and water pollution, indirectly contributing to the greenhouse gas effect, which affects human health, the environment, and the economy (Kwun Omang et al., 2021). African countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, and Sub-Saharan Africa are densely populated areas, leading to an adverse increase in resource consumption and waste generation, coupled with a massive decline in waste collection, treatment, and disposal (Selin, 2013; Kumar and Agrawal, 2020). The incidence of health issues related to poor waste management, such as diarrhea, was noticeable in younger children, such as diarrhea in Odukpani and Akamkpa (Kwun Omang et al., 2021). Ziraba et al. (2016) reported that approximately 70% of urban waste in developing countries has not been collected and disposed of appropriately, even though the implications of poorly managed waste on health are numerous. In Ghana, Amoah and Kosoe (2014) reported that 810 tonnes of solid waste is generated daily, out of which 216 tonnes are collected leaving a backlog of 594 tonnes uncollected posing serious environmental and public health hazards. Ferronato et al. (2017) also reported that waste management in developing countries represents a dangerous issue due to environmental impacts and human illnesses triggered by waste releases in water bodies.

Various studies of risk perceptions have demonstrated that women, in general, are more concerned about environmental hazards than men (Flynn et al., 1994; Greenberg and Schneider, 1995). Indeed, improper waste disposal health risks relating to gender have been reported by a lot of studies with contradicting findings (Mamady, 2016; Adewoyin, 2017; Kanhai et al., 2021a). For example, Mamady (2016) found that female individuals were independently associated with indiscriminate waste disposal as compared to their male counterparts in a study that looked at health and safety risks posed by improper disposal of household waste in Guinea. In a three-female focus group study in Ghana, participants in each group mentioned waste-related health hazards such as malaria, cholera, and diarrhea (Kanhai et al., 2021a). However, studies have also reported serious health risks of improper waste disposal to not be gender biased (Adeniyi and Oni, 2016; Adewoyin, 2017), reporting potential health risks of improper waste disposal for both males and females as respiratory problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and aggravated allergies due to inhalation of these pollutants.

In addition, water bodies can contaminate water sources and increase the risk of waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and diarrhea, affecting both males and females who consume contaminated water (Adeniyi and Oni, 2016). Also, improper waste management can lead to breeding grounds for disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes, flies, and rodents. This increases the risk of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and leptospirosis, which can affect both genders (Adewoyin, 2017). The drivers of improper waste disposal in South Africa are exacerbated by poverty, rapid urbanization, and population explosion, leading to a decrease in waste management and in municipal failure to deliver services (Selin, 2013; Akmal and Jamil, 2021). Apart from health hazards and environmental degradation, poor waste management over the years has been responsible for causing several diseases and, in some cases, death, as mentioned by the United States of America’s Public Health and the World Health Organisation (Alam and Ahmede, 2013; Letcher and Vallero, 2014; Kwun Omang et al., 2021). Environmentalists’ concern about improper waste disposal’s impact on human health and the environment has prompted studies in the United Kingdom. These studies reveal that a significant percentage of waste generated annually stems from a harmful practice (Giusti, 2009). Furthermore, Couth and Trois (2010) indicated that waste management, especially in rural areas of Africa, is non-existent. However, Kumar and Agrawal, 2020 indicated that in Africa, the issue of waste management has been initiated and expanded to lessen environmental harm and health risks. In addition, European countries’ initiatives to curb the issue of poor waste management and progress have given positive results so far (Sultanova et al., 2021). As a means to mitigate waste problems, the UNEP hosted a global partnership on waste management in Japan, with waste experts to generate different ideas on strategies to be employed globally (UN Environment, 2017). This study is significant in that if waste management issues are not dealt with properly, the study municipality might lose its commercial functions (Asaduzzaman et al., 2014; Getis et al., 2018). In addition, the cities within the municipality might lose their prominence. The study conscientizes the city management about the health and environmental impacts of improper waste disposal as the conclusions derived from this study are to be shared with the management of the municipality. The impacts of improper waste disposal affect all aspects, such as social, environmental, and economic issues globally (Burcea, 2015; Khoso et al., 2018; Schenck et al., 2022). Therefore, this study added to the existing literature on the effects of improper waste disposal on health and the environment.

The rationale of the study lies in the urgent need for evidence-based policymaking to address the detrimental effects of improper waste disposal on both human health and the environment in KwaZulu Natal Province, South Africa. By investigating the specific impacts and patterns of improper waste disposal and giving answers, policymakers can better understand the scope of the problem and implement targeted interventions to mitigate its effects. This research aims to provide valuable insights that can inform policy decisions aimed at promoting sustainable waste management practices, safeguarding public health, and protecting the environment in the region. The study, therefore, aims to determine the impact of improper waste disposal on human health and the environment in uMgungundlovu District Municipality in the KwaZulu Natal Province of South Africa. The novelty of the work has been added to the manuscript, highlighted in green as R5C2 in the revised manuscript as follows” The novelty of this work lies in its localised focus, interdisciplinary approach, emphasis on community engagement, and provision of conclusions to mitigate the adverse effects of improper waste disposal on both human health and the environment in the Umgungundlovu District Municipality of South Africa.

The demographic characteristics of respondents, including gender, religious affiliation, age group, education level, marital status, ethnic group, and employment status, are used for this study to correlate with other important critical questions underpinning this study. The study had 100 responses from Sobantu Township, where the majority of the respondents were females (n = 56), and of the 100 respondents, most were Christians (n = 89); the majority were divorced (n = 45); Black (n = 97); and were employed (n = 47).

We investigated the effects of improper waste disposal on the Sobantu community in the Mduduzi district municipality in the KwaZulu Natal Province and found that, indeed, there is a negative effect of the waste disposed improperly to this community. The results of the five chi-squared tests applied showed insignificant relationships when gender, age group, marital status, and employment status of respondents were correlated with several variables that were surprising. Studies around the world have reported correlations between several demographic variables and the risk of improper waste disposal (Yoada et al., 2014; Addo et al., 2017; Femi et al., 2017; Fadhullah et al., 2022). For example, in Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria, respondents’ level of education and age of respondents influenced the responses to the risk of improper waste disposal (Femi et al., 2017).

This study is written in the Disaster risk reduction context; therefore, the long-term prospects include positive impacts on policy, public awareness, technological innovation, health outcomes, economic development, and environmental conservation. By addressing this critical multifaceted issue, the study has the potential to bring about lasting positive changes for both human health and the environment. The results of most females being aware of improper waste disposal as compared to their male counterparts were expected. Literature indicates that most of the time females are the ones who stay at home and are responsible for managing the household’s waste, which makes them more concerned and aware of improper waste disposal happening in their households and their environment (Kanhai et al., 2021b; Yumna et al., 2019). Consistent with the study results, Tatlonghari and Jamias (2010) reported that women, as compared to their male counterparts, are more aware and knowledgeable of proper waste management. The results of the majority of the respondents reporting tins and plastics are consistent with the results of Dasgupta et al. (2022), who reported excessive and improper plastic waste that affected marine species in West Africa. It was reported that some marine species died due to ingesting and being entangled by plastic debris due to waste pollution, causing a loss of livelihoods to the communities relying on the fishery in West Africa (Dasgupta et al., 2022). In addition, Ncube et al. (2021) reported that mismanagement of plastic waste by developed and developing countries is declining. These results should be a call of concern to the residents of Sobantu, as the growing accumulation of plastic waste in the environment might cause the community to suffer the consequences.

The results of the age group 36–45 knowing more of the major effects of improper waste disposal as compared to any other age group was expected as this age group is referred to as mid to late adults in the South African context (Statistics South Africa, 2011) and naturally, adults will be more aware and knowledgeable about issues of major effects of improper waste disposal as compared to other age groups. Literature also reported that improper waste disposal is on the rise nowadays and has severe consequences on human health and the environment, making these mid to late adults very alert as they are normally of childbearing age, and they have to be more vigilant of issues that might affect the health and the environment their children are exposed to Olufayo and Omotosho (2007) and Damilola, (2023). Indeed, adults naturally, as compared to any other age group, will take more interest in things that will affect their communities’ health, and otherwise they will be thinking more about the effects this will have on their offspring.

The results were not surprising when most of the respondents with a university Degree answered yes when asked if they knew about the risks posed by improper waste disposal. People with university Degrees have been reported by studies to be knowledgeable about a lot of serious issues that can impact their lives as compared to those with certificates, no formal education, and those with diplomas as degree qualifications teach theory and practice in most South African Universities (Seymour, 2007; Fink, 2013). Indeed, a university degree can set apart the level of thinking and awareness of people to some degree because of the knowledge gained throughout university studies (Eraut, 2000).

The results of diseases been the most risk associated with improper waste disposal were consistent with Amato and Togo (2021), who indicated that in Masvingo City, Zimbabwe, improper waste disposal polluted air, water, and land, and the repercussions turned out to harm the environment and cause health hazards such as respiratory problems, the spread of diseases due to influx of rodent infestation and odor to people residing near these polluted environments.

The results of the majority of the single people knowing the factors that cause improper waste disposal in the community as compared to other marital status groups were not expected because Mohamad and Masngut (2023) reported that the majority of married individuals have the best approach practices and are vigilant towards proper waste management than single individuals and therefore more knowledge of factors to support the theory of vigilance. In the South African context, the results that waste is not collected as the factor that the respondents thought of as causing improper waste disposal was not surprising at all. Recently, in 2023, the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality’s (one of the largest municipalities in the world) waste management employees were on a protest action for several months, and waste was not collected at all. This was televised in most South African Broadcasting channels for months on end.

The results were not surprising when the majority of the employed respondents answered, ‘all of them’ when asked who they think is most vulnerable to risks caused by improper waste disposal. Nuripuoh et al. (2022), reported that even though waste workers and waste pickers are responsible for sustainable waste management, due to exposure to the unhygienic environment, the dirt spread all over, creating diseases that end up affecting everyone in the area. Consequently, Giusti (2009) also reported that community members and everybody who works in waste management institutions are at risk of contracting diseases due to dirt being inhaled or touched, as some people do not use protective clothing when dealing with waste. A study by Orlins and Guan (2016) reported that in China, informal workers dealing with the dismantling and burning of e-waste and trying to make a living were reported to be sick due to inhaling toxins.

The results where the majority of the respondents reported the methods mostly used by the residents to dispose of waste as illegally opened dumpsites were expected because the literature has shown that the lack of proper and adequate solid waste management facilities leads communities to resort to throwing waste everywhere including riverbanks, roadside, and some practiced open burning (Haider and Kang, 2015; Etea et al., 2021). The results of health concerns caused by improper waste disposal were expected because reports that showed measures of informing the public regarding proper waste management are still lacking, hence most respondents reported their concern (Zand and Heir, 2020; Mohamad and Masngut, 2023).

The regression results have shed light on how people believe that finance and paying the collection fee can somehow assist in dealing with the issue of improper waste disposal across the municipality. According to Matheson (2022), for the communities to lead a healthy quality life and to conserve the environment calls for proper solid waste management, which in turn requires additional funding, including increased collection rates, incineration, composting, sorting, and treatment before waste is discarded to a landfill site. In Sweden and Thailand, studies reported that various instruments for solid waste management, namely incineration, on top of the agenda, which made solid waste management in the area reported a success (Finnveden et al., 2013; Vassanadumrongdee and Kittipongvises, 2018). Similarly, Haider and Kang (2015) revealed that positive turnout to willingness to pay for waste collection was notable after people were made aware of the importance of waste reduction and economic opportunities associated with waste collection. Kaza et al. (2018) indicated that solid waste management tends to compromise the municipal budget as it requires more budget allocation.

The theme “to collect waste on time” emerged as the main suggestion to the authority when respondents were asked to suggest what the Msunduzi local authorities should do to resolve the issue of improper waste disposal was not surprising. Recently, the Tshwane Municipality had protest actions that lasted for a few months leading to improper waste disposal that led to all the other issues and health impacts raised by this study.

In conclusion, the findings of this study share some information that there are some repercussions associated with improper waste disposal, including the impact on human health, the environment, and the cost implications associated with the costs of cleaning up and maintaining damaged infrastructure. The study also revealed that improper waste disposal has short- and long-term results that both hinder developments in the communities. These results showed that waste management is important as not only does it offer a cleaner, healthier environment, but it also assists in managing improperly discarded waste, some of which is hazardous and non-hazardous.

South Africa is a developing country, and the lack of resources for responding to issues exacerbated by improper waste management can and should be avoided to reduce the potential costs of improper waste disposal. Based on the sampled population, the results from this study indicated that most of the people in Sobantu Township are educated. As a result, the conclusion can be made that somehow poor attitude and negligence of residents add to improper waste disposal witnessed within the study community. Indeed, Fobil et al. (2010) indicated that insufficient funds on the side of most governments allocated for waste management, such as waste collection services, ageing or not maintained infrastructure, and inefficient sanitation facilities, are among the factors that escalate improper waste disposal. The relationships between the demographic variables and the risk questions were, in most cases, insignificantly different statistically. The discussion justifies this insignificance. Indeed, studies have reported that statistically insignificant relationships do not necessarily mean socially and ecologically insignificant (Johnson and Ma, 1999; Dienes, 2014).

Improper waste disposal can have serious ecological consequences, especially in sensitive ecosystems like those found in South Africa (Eijsackers et al., 2020). The serious possible ecological consequences of improper waste disposal include but are not limited to water contamination, soil and air pollution, habitat destruction, the spread of some invasive species, and health risks to wildlife (Singh and Singh, 2017). Addressing these ecological consequences requires proper waste management practices, education, and awareness campaigns to promote responsible waste disposal behaviors among individuals and communities (Ajibade et al., 2021). Additionally, enforcement of environmental regulations and policies is essential to prevent illegal dumping and hold polluters accountable for their actions (D'Amato et al., 2018).

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by University of the Free State General Human Research Ethics Committee. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

TR: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Software, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. NM: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. ME: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization.