Recovery is an essential component of athletic training and competition, particularly in sports that combine intense physiological demands with the need for mental sharpness and cognitive performance (1, 2). Given the increasing frequency of matches and the reduced rest periods in modern soccer schedules, effective recovery strategies—such as low-intensity exercise, nutritional support, adequate hydration, psychological recovery, and sufficient sleep—are essential (3–7). Sleep is consistently rated by athletes and coaches as one of the most important recovery strategies and is therefore a central focus of this review (8).

The aim of this narrative review is to synthesize current knowledge on the critical role of sleep on performance, recovery and injury risk reduction in soccer players, updating a previous paper by Nedelec and colleagues (9). In addition, this review takes into account broader reviews (6, 10), which, while not focusing specifically on soccer, provide valuable practical applications for soccer players during intense training and competition thereby addressing existing gaps in the field. We focus on presenting a practical guide for improving sleep quality in soccer players, with evidence-based strategies that coaches, players, and sports scientists can implement. By providing actionable recommendations, this review seeks to enhance players' sleep hygiene and optimize both physical and mental performance in soccer.

This review first outlines the physiology and architecture of sleep, followed by an examination of sleep's role in the recovery processes of soccer players. It then discusses the typical sleep habits of soccer players and the impact of sleep on performance. Subsequently, the review addresses sport-specific challenges related to sleep, analyzing how characteristics inherent to soccer may disrupt sleep patterns and exploring potential strategies to mitigate these effects. Finally, the review presents practical recommendations in the form of a step-by-step sleep management strategy tailored for the periods before and after an important soccer match.

The literature for this review was identified through searches of the PubMed and Scopus databases. The search strategy was informed by the authors’ extensive research and practical experience in professional soccer and sleep science, using the keywords [“SOCCER”[Title/Abstract] OR “FOOTBALL”[Title/Abstract]] AND [“SLEEP”(Title/Abstract)]]. Selection was based on the relevance and quality of the studies, with a primary focus on peer-reviewed articles involving soccer players.

Among the various recovery strategies available to athletes, sleep has emerged as one of the most essential and accessible tools for optimizing recovery and performance. Sleep is essential for both physical and mental health. It alternates between two primary phases: Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) and Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep (11). The NREM stage is divided into three gradual sleep depth levels: N1, N2 and N3, where stage N1 serves as the transition from wakefulness to sleep, typically lasting 1–5 min and accounting for about 5% of the sleep cycle. During the N1 sleep stage, muscle tone relaxes, and brain wave activity slows. Stage N2 of sleep (i.e., light sleep) accounts for approximately 50% of a sleep cycle, and is characterized by a further decrease in brain activity. This stage includes distinctive features such as sleep spindles and K-complexes. Sleep spindles are bursts of oscillatory brain activity visible on an EEG, occurring during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. K-complexes are large, slow waves that arise spontaneously or in response to external stimuli during NREM sleep) (12). These features reflect brief bursts of neural synchronization and cortical responses to external stimuli (11). These phenomena play a crucial role in memory consolidation and cognitive processing (13), facilitating the acquisition of new skills and tactics (14), which are not only essential for individual performance but also critical for understanding and executing team strategies in sports. The third sleep stage (N3), often referred to as “deep sleep” or “slow-wave sleep” (SWS), is essential for physical recovery. It facilitates the release of growth hormone, which is crucial for muscle repair and growth, and typically comprises about 20%–25% of a young adult's sleep, although it decreases with age (11, 13). The REM sleep stage typically begins approximately 70–90 min after sleep onset and is characterized by increased brain activity, vivid dreaming, and muscle atonia, which prevents most voluntary movements (13). This stage is vital for cognitive functions such as problem-solving and memory (13), which are essential for strategic thinking in soccer. Notably, there are very limited data on sleep architecture in soccer players, and this is something that future research should examine. To examine sleep architecture, techniques such as polysomnography are required, which unfortunately are not practical to implement in the world of soccer. In a recent study, sleep architecture was evaluated using wearable devices (WHOOP straps), and the results indicated no significant differences in sleep architecture parameters following home vs. away matches in elite soccer players (15). However, beyond sleep architecture, several sleep variables can be assessed more easily and are more practically available in soccer settings. These include sleep duration, defined as the cumulative time spent in physiological sleep states, and sleep regularity, reflecting the consistency of sleep–wake timing across days. Sleep efficiency, representing the proportion of time spent asleep relative to total time in bed, and sleep onset latency, defined as the elapsed time between bedtime and sleep onset, are also commonly assessed, along with perceived sleep quality. The topic of sleep assessment and monitoring in soccer players is further discussed in a dedicated section below.

Sleep is a key component of recovery, supporting physiological and psychological restoration essential for peak performance (4, 6). Sleep promotes muscle recovery through protein synthesis and growth hormone release, and facilitates the consolidation of skills and memory, which are vital for tactical preparedness in soccer (16, 17). Additionally, sleep modulates mood and cognitive functions, crucial for maintaining focus and decision-making abilities during matches (18). Sleep also enhances immune function, helping athletes to withstand the demands of a rigorous soccer season (19).

Sleep structure, including the cyclical pattern of the sleep stages, plays a critical role in recovery (11). Disruptions in sleep architecture, such as those caused by irregular competition schedules, can impair recovery. Interruptions in deep sleep may reduce growth hormone secretion, hindering muscle repair (17), while disrupted REM sleep can affect cognition (i.e., attention and decision-making) (20) and visual reaction time (21), which are crucial components for maintaining mental clarity, alert state and tactical awareness (18).

During the deep stage of sleep (N3), particularly during SWS, the body undergoes significant physiological changes, including reduced heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, alongside increased blood flow to muscles, which facilitates the delivery of oxygen and nutrients necessary for muscle repair and growth, as well as the regeneration of body tissues (22). Moreover, the psychological benefits of sleep are equally important, as this period of rest can significantly reduce fatigue. This reduction is crucial for improving athletes' concentration and alertness, which are essential for executing complex tactical maneuvers and for reacting swiftly to dynamic game situations, and optimizing overall game performance (23).

An important aspect of sleep regarding the recovery process in athletes is the relationship between sleep and training load. Some studies reported a decrease in both sleep duration and sleep efficiency, as well as reduced immobile time (i.e., the total duration without detectable body movement during the time-in-bed interval), in athletes experiencing overreaching (24). It seems that changes in sleep patterns can be the result of non-functional overreaching and, on the other hand, may act as a contributor to the development of overreaching/overtraining in athletes (22). Therefore, systematic monitoring of both training load and sleep patterns is crucial.

There are various methods for evaluating sleep, both objectively and subjectively (Table 1). Objective methods include polysomnography, actigraphy, and nearable devices, while subjective methods involve questionnaires and sleep diaries (25, 26). In practice, in professional soccer, most often sleep is monitored through questionnaires within the general framework of wellness and fatigue assessment. Polysomnography, which is considered the gold standard for sleep evaluation, is not practical and is not commonly used in soccer players. However, in-home partial polysomnography devices are now available on the market, offering a valuable tool for a precise assessment of sleep architecture (i.e., scoring sleep stages) and identifying specific sleep disorders that could affect performance (27). Wearable sleep trackers offer a practical solution for sleep monitoring. Additionally, nearables—non-contact devices typically placed near the bed—offer an alternative approach to sleep monitoring using technologies like ballistocardiography. However, while wearables and nearables can validly estimate sleep duration, sleep onset latency, and wake after sleep onset, they are not capable of accurately measuring sleep architecture (i.e., sleep stages). At present, only EEG-based methods such as polysomnography can provide detailed insights into sleep staging. This distinction is critical for practitioners, as many commercial devices claim to “assess” rather “estimate” sleep stages, despite relying on indirect algorithms against PSG. Nevertheless, due to their ease of use, can provide valuable insights into sleep duration, efficiency, and disturbances, enabling tailored interventions (25). Recent studies have utilized wearable technology to monitor sleep, which has been instrumental in adjusting training and recovery programs (25). Notably, players sometimes react negatively to even actigraphs and wearables, feeling that wearing such devices continuously infringes on their personal life and increases their stress. Moreover, excessive sleep monitoring can lead to a behavioral phenomenon called orthosomnia, which can negatively interfere with the ability to sleep. Unlike insomnia, orthosomnia occurs when the individual becomes obsessive about trying to achieve “perfect sleep”, which can paradoxically impair adequate rest. This condition may result in some symptoms such as difficulty falling asleep at night (i.e., increased sleep onset latency), waking up during the night, waking up too early, non-restorative sleep, daytime sleepiness, mood swings, and problems with decision-making (28). To minimize the risk of orthosomnia, it is recommended to limit the frequency of sleep tracking (e.g., using devices only a few times per week rather than nightly). In addition, structured education on the interpretation of sleep data should be provided, emphasizing normal variability and prioritizing subjective sleep quality over minor fluctuations in tracker-derived metrics (29, 30).

In a recent study involving 175 elite athletes, the participants reported that they needed 8.3 ± 0.9 h of sleep per night to feel adequately rested (31). However, these athletes averaged only 6.7 h of actual sleep, measured by actigraphy, with only about 3% of the athletes obtaining the sleep duration consistent with their stated need, while 71% fell short by more than 1 h (31). In that study, the subgroup of soccer players had an average sleep duration of 7.0 ± 0.7 h, and an average time in bed of approximately 8 h (habitual sleep onset at 23:39 ± 00:35 and habitual sleep offset at 07:45 ± 00:33) (31). These values are lower than the recommended sleep duration for the general population, and athletes may require even more sleep to recover from training and match loads. Moreover, in a recent systematic review where sleep was assessed exclusively through objective methods (i.e., using polysomnography and actigraphy), athletes were found to sleep an average of 7.2 ± 1.1 h per night, with a sleep efficiency (the ratio of total sleep time to time in bed) of 86.3% ± 6.8% (32). Soccer players also experience reduced total sleep time, longer sleep onset latency, and lower sleep efficiency on game days as well as during the weekly training microcycle, when compared to the recommended sleep duration for non-athletic populations (33). Reduced sleep duration negatively affects physical performance in soccer players. Reduced sleep time after night matches is generally associated with declines in performance and subjective well-being, including increased fatigue, stress, and muscle soreness (9). However, some studies have not reported these negative effects, suggesting that individual or contextual factors may moderate the impact (34). In addition, soccer athletes engaged in congested match schedules may experience greater mental fatigue and cognitive arousal (35), which can negatively affect sleep patterns, particularly during night matches (36). In non-soccer populations, sleep patterns appear to differ when comparing individuals from different continents (37). It is plausible that cultural norms, such as midday siestas in Southern Europe or shorter nocturnal sleep in East Asia, may shape athletes' sleep duration and timing, potentially affecting recovery patterns if soccer players from these regions adhere to such practices. Moreover, religious practices (e.g., Ramadan fasting), which are more prevalent in certain continents, can also impair sleep (38). To our knowledge, no study has directly compared the sleep patterns of athletes from European and non-European countries (e.g., South American countries). This remains an interesting topic for future research.

In general, sleep loss in athletes has been shown to negatively affect several aspects of physical performance. According to a recent systematic review, the negative effects of acute sleep loss in athletes (not limited specifically to soccer players) are more pronounced in the afternoon than in the morning (39). Notably, these negative effects are observed only under total sleep deprivation and late sleep restriction protocols (i.e., waking earlier than normal) (39). Research highlights the link between poor sleep and soccer performance, although further studies are needed (40). Poor sleep quality is associated with slower reaction times, reduced decision-making accuracy, and increased injury risk in professional soccer players (40, 41). Moreover, partial sleep deprivation adversely affects anaerobic performance tests, muscle strength, and causes increased fatigue in the afternoon of the next day (42). However, performance in drill-based games may not be influenced by changes in sleep (43). While these associations are well-documented, specific direct causal links between sleep loss and injury risk cannot be ethically tested in experimental settings. As a result, most available evidence is correlational, emphasizing the need for high-quality longitudinal studies to further explore these relationships.

We should emphasize that there is limited evidence regarding the chronic effects of sleep loss and sleep restriction in soccer players (44). Theoretically, chronic sleep loss may lead to increased fatigue, impaired muscle recovery, reduced endurance and sprint capacity, and a diminished ability to perform high-intensity efforts—all of which are crucial for soccer performance. Additionally, cognitive functions such as decision-making and reaction time may be adversely affected, potentially resulting in more mistakes on the field (4). Collectively, these factors could negatively impact the overall performance of soccer players; however, it should be emphasized that the above considerations remain theoretical at this stage.

Intensive training schedules, high training loads (6, 32) evening matches, and frequent travels disrupt natural sleep patterns and circadian rhythms (45). Matches played in the evening can delay sleep onset and disrupt sleep architecture if not properly managed (4). Other factors that interfere with sleep include high social demands from social media, friends, sponsors, and others (6). Importantly, many causes of poor sleep in soccer players are difficult to control or change. For example, sport scientists and sleep specialists aiming to optimize sleep conditions cannot control fluctuations in training load and the scheduling of matches, which are typically determined by the League or the head coach. Establishing strong collaboration and mutual trust between the coach and the soccer team's staff is crucial to ensure that scientific insights are effectively implemented in practice.

Notably, sleep extension has been shown to improve reaction times, accuracy, and speed in athletes, highlighting its role in enhancing overall performance (46). Adequate sleep duration can also reduce perceptions of fatigue, enhance mood, and improve players' ability to cope with the physical demands of soccer (4). Additionally, sleep length appears to influence various aspects of cognition, which in turn affect soccer performance (4).

Numerous studies have demonstrated that inadequate sleep and sleep deprivation can impair immune function, increasing susceptibility to infections, including the common cold (47). A landmark study by Cohen et al. (48) found that individuals sleeping less than seven hours per night were almost three times more likely to develop an infection than those sleeping eight hours or more. Sleep is essential for optimal immune function, with SWS playing a key role in promoting adaptive immunity (19). As outlined by Besedovsky et al. (19), sleep fosters a hormonal environment that enhances T cell activation and supports the formation of immunological memory. Even short-term sleep deprivation disrupts these processes and increases levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor –α (19).

Chronic sleep deprivation, defined as sustained restriction to ≤6 h per night over multiple nights, has more profound and systemic consequences in non-athletes, among which is persistent low-grade inflammation, characterized by elevated IL-6, TNF-α, and CRP levels (49). Furthermore, chronic sleep restriction promotes oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and gut microbiota imbalance—factors that contribute to broader immunological disease risk and symptoms of overtraining (4, 50). In professional soccer, this vulnerability is heightened during congested fixture periods, where the high physical load compounded by poor sleep quality increases the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) (6, 51).

Together, these findings emphasize that both acute and chronic sleep loss significantly impair immune competence and may compromise resilience to infection, inflammation, and long-term health outcomes. Strategic interventions to promote optimal sleep duration and quality, such as consistent sleep routines and managing pre-sleep anxiety, can play a decisive role in accelerating recovery and maintaining peak performance and health in soccer players (52).

The relationship between muscle mass and athletic performance is well documented. Muscle strength and endurance are critical for athletic performance (53), and their development is significantly influenced by mitochondrial and myofibrillar protein synthesis (17). Sleep is crucial for muscle recovery and growth, primarily through its role in protein synthesis. During sleep, the body enters a state of recovery where it restores and regenerates tissue, including muscle and mitochondrial proteins, thereby adapting to the exercise stimuli (54). Sleep deprivation can reduce the rate of protein synthesis and hinder recovery (17). This reduction is partly due to decreased secretion of growth hormone and changes in cortisol levels when sleep is inadequate. Studies have shown that protein ingestion before sleep can promote overnight muscle protein synthesis, improve recovery and promote adaptations to training (55, 56). This suggests that not only sleep quantity is important, but also that nutritional strategies before sleep are crucial.

In the context of enhancing sleep quality for soccer players, it is essential to differentiate between strategies that can be applied both after training sessions and match play. Optimizing post-training recovery routines is essential for enhancing sleep quality among soccer players. As elaborated below, effective recovery aids physical recuperation and prepares the body for restful sleep, which is essential for sports performance. Each set of circumstances presents unique challenges and opportunities for optimizing recovery through better sleep.

A gradual physical wind-down after training is vital. Engaging in low-intensity activities such as stretching, yoga, or light jogging can help transition the body from an active to a more relaxed state. These activities aid in reducing heart rate and muscle tension, setting the stage for a smoother transition to sleep (16).

In this section, we present strategies for managing sleep in a real-world context involving a professional soccer team preparing for an important evening match. These strategies are illustrated in graphical form in Figure 1 and are designed to help the team implement a comprehensive sleep strategy to optimize both performance and recovery.

This review is narrative in nature and therefore carries inherent limitations. The selection of studies may introduce potential bias, and some recommendations are based on evidence from research that is not exclusively soccer-specific. Additionally, the absence of systematic methodology limits the ability to draw definitive conclusions. Furthermore, data from male and female players, youth and adult athletes, and different performance levels were sometimes pooled, which may reduce scientific precision given known differences in sleep physiology and recovery processes. Future work should aim to address these gaps through systematic reviews and experimental studies focused specifically on soccer populations.

This review highlighted the critical role of sleep in enhancing athletic performance and recovery for soccer players. Strategies such as creating a sleep-conducive environment, scheduling short naps at appropriate times, avoiding the use of electronic devices before sleep, tailoring nutrition, and using technology to monitor sleep are essential components of an effective sleep management program. Ensuring adequate, high-quality sleep will enhance players' performance, recovery, and well-being, ultimately leading to improved outcomes on the field. Looking ahead, future research should prioritize: (1) examining sleep architecture in soccer players using validated methods such as polysomnography to assess sleep architecture; (2) exploring cultural and environmental influences on sleep in non-European contexts; (3) conducting longitudinal studies on the relationship between sleep and injury risk; (4) developing and testing practical, evidence-based sleep hygiene interventions tailored for athletes; and (5) investigating the integration of sleep strategies with training and nutritional programs. These directions will provide a stronger evidence base for optimizing sleep and performance in soccer. From a practical perspective, integrating structured sleep strategies into daily training routines should be considered a core component of performance optimization in elite soccer.