Physical education has a direct link to health-related targets, most significantly through the established positive impact of continuous, systematic physical activity on students' mental and psychological states, directly addressing Target 3.4 (Reduce premature mortality and promote mental health and well-being) (28). Furthermore, PE instils values that actively deter drug use, linking it to Target 3.5 (Reduce drug abuse) (29).

The subject also provides an indirect link to other health targets. By contributing to students' understanding of their bodies from a biological perspective, PE can support Target 3.7 (Sexual and reproductive healthcare) (30). When road-safety education is integrated into the curriculum (e.g., safe movement on roadways, including cycling and other forms of active transportation), PE also links to Target 3.6 (Reduce road traffic injuries) (24).

Physical education is a fundamental right and an indispensable part of a quality education system, establishing a direct link to Target 4.1 (Free and quality education) (8, 24). Neuroscientific evidence strongly links physical activity to improved academic and cognitive performance, including enhanced concentration, better executive function, and increased feelings of well-being (31–34).

Moreover, PE fosters essential skills for employment, such as cooperation, responsibility, and respect, aligning with Target 4.4 (Skills for employment) (10). As an ideal setting for co-education and teamwork, PE also helps reduce gender gaps and ensures equality for vulnerable groups, directly supporting Target 4.5 (Equality) (24, 35). PE's sustainability link addresses Target 4.7 (Sustainability knowledge and skills) by teaching principles through physical activity in the natural environment and presenting sustainable alternatives (24, 36). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) noted a two-way connection with this objective: (1) PE can advance sustainability competencies (Target 4.7) through structured learning experiences; and (2) education for sustainable development can, in turn, strengthen PE quality by legitimising broader learning outcomes beyond fitness and sport performance (26).

Physical education has a direct link to gender equality by offering opportunities to create a non-discriminatory environment that encourages women's inclusion and empowerment (5, 26). This directly addresses Targets 5.1, 5.2 (End discrimination and violence against women), and 5.5 (Equality of opportunity) (24). The empowerment of women (Target 5.c) can also be achieved by introducing appealing sports initiatives in PE, ideally supported by external institutions (24).

Similarly, sport is an opportunity to combat all forms of discrimination (26). PE promotes cooperative attitudes and inclusion (37), establishing a direct link to Goal 10: Reduced Inequalities, specifically supporting Targets 10.2 (Inclusion of all people) and 10.3 (Ensure equal opportunities) (24).

Physical education establishes an indirect link to Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth by cultivating valuable transferable values for employment, such as cooperation, tolerance, and emotional control (38). Target 8.3 (Entrepreneurship and innovation) is linked by using models like Sport Education to encourage careers in the appealing sports sector (24, 26). Furthermore, promoting traditional sports, local games, and cultural customs in PE supports cultural heritage and local tourism, addressing Target 8.9 (Sustainable tourism).

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities has a pedagogical link through a Community Service Learning framework, allowing PE to engage with Targets 11.3 (Sustainable urbanization) and 11.7 (Access to green and public spaces), for example, by maintaining a local exercise park (24, 26). The subject also addresses Target 11.6 (Reduce negative environmental impact of cities) by encouraging sustainable modes of transport, such as walking or cycling.

Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production has an educational link as PE provides a practical context for promoting sustainable consumption habits (Targets 12.2, 12.5, and 12.8) (5). This can be addressed through authentic PE tasks such as auditing equipment use and waste during units, designing low-cost activity stations with reused materials (with documented safety checks), and evaluating the environmental impact of sport or school events as part of active learning projects.

A direct link to Goal 13: Climate Action is established through PE's impact on environmental protection, aligning with Target 13.3 (Education and awareness) (24). Participating in activities like “plogging” (running while collecting waste) positively impacts students' environmental thinking and attitudes (39).

Sport and physical activity promote tolerance, equality, and cooperation (26), providing a pedagogical link to Goal 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions. PE can improve interpersonal relationships and link to Target 16.7 (Inclusive decision-making) (24). This goal is also connected to the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model, an increasing used and valid pedagogical model for teaching civic values through PE (40).

Finally, PE contributes to Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals by fostering emotional connections and cooperation among stakeholders (26), thereby aligning with the need for partnership and coordination (1).

Cooperative learning involves organizing students into heterogeneous groups based on their differing levels of knowledge and ability. Within these groups, students are not only responsible for mastering the learning content but also for supporting the progress of their peers (42). A growing body of literature highlights the value of cooperative learning in physical education (PE). Research indicates that this approach enhances students' engagement in physical activity, reduces anxiety related to performance, and strengthens confidence in their physical capabilities (43).

The cooperative learning strategy rests on three core principles: positive interdependence, individual and group responsibility, and promotive interaction (44, 45). Positive interdependence describes the perception that group members' success is mutually beneficial—each student's achievement contributes to the collective outcome. This interdependence is fostered when learners take ownership of their own actions, engage actively with the content, and complete assigned tasks conscientiously (46–48).

Individual responsibility refers to each learner's duty to participate meaningfully in the group's work: sharing ideas, listening to others, and preparing for collaborative activities. Students are expected to take responsibility for their assigned roles, assist peers when possible, and seek help when needed. This element ensures maximal engagement and contribution from all participants (49, as cited in (91)). Group responsibility, in turn, encompasses the shared commitment to achieving common objectives through cooperation, mutual support, joint decision-making, and collective accountability for outcomes (46, 47).

Although cooperative learning is not unique to PE, the inherently interactive and participatory nature of physical education amplifies its benefits (50). The approach can contribute directly to the advancement of several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For instance, it aligns with Goal 16.7, which emphasizes inclusive, participatory, and representative decision-making—features that mirror the cooperative learning process (24, 50). It also relates to Goal 4.4, which promotes the development of entrepreneurial and collaborative competences relevant to employability, as cooperative learning nurtures innovation, teamwork, and problem-solving (24, 51). Moreover, the model supports Goal 4.5 by fostering inclusion and respect for diverse perspectives, thus enhancing participation among vulnerable groups (52). Finally, cooperative learning connects to Goal 8.3, which focuses on encouraging entrepreneurship, creativity, and innovation—capacities strengthened through the social and interpersonal skills cultivated in PE (53).

The Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) (54) model has been widely validated as an effective pedagogical framework in physical education (PE) for fostering students' competencies related to responsibility and ethical behaviour (40). This model promotes fundamental social values such as respect, equality, and fairness (37). Within PE, TPSR plays a pivotal role in cultivating both personal and social dimensions of responsibility that extend beyond the gymnasium and into everyday life.

Personal responsibility involves an individual's awareness of their own health and wellbeing, and the capacity to make informed, autonomous decisions about physical activity, nutrition, and lifestyle (55). Social responsibility, in contrast, concerns understanding how one's actions affect others and the environment, and actively contributing to the health and wellbeing of the broader community (54). PE offers a unique context for developing these dual forms of responsibility because it integrates physical, social, and moral learning within a shared activity setting.

Through participation in varied physical activities, students learn the importance of physical activity for health, acquire the skills needed to engage in sport and recreation, and develop knowledge about nutrition and healthy living (56). At the same time, PE provides a setting for practising key social skills such as teamwork, cooperation, empathy, fair play, and respect for others. All of which are core elements of social responsibility (57). By embedding TPSR within PE, teachers can guide students to become self-regulated, socially aware individuals who recognise their role in promoting collective wellbeing.

Importantly, the TPSR model contributes to advancing several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) associated with equality and inclusion. It aligns closely with Goal 5 (Gender Equality)—particularly sub-goals 5.1, 5.2, 5.5, and 5.c which aim to eliminate discrimination and violence against women, ensure equal participation in decision-making, and empower women and girls (58). By promoting respect and equitable participation, TPSR fosters an inclusive learning climate consistent with these global objectives.

The model also aligns with Goal 16.7, which advocates for inclusive and participatory decision-making, by empowering students to take responsibility for their actions and contribute ethically within group settings (24, 54). Furthermore, TPSR supports Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities) but specifically 10.2, which promotes the social, economic, and political inclusion of all people, and 10.3, which seeks to ensure equal opportunities and reduce inequalities of outcome. Through structured reflection and guided practice, TPSR enables learners to recognise inequities, appreciate diversity, and act responsibly toward others.

The Sports Education Model (SEM) was developed to provide students with authentic, educationally rich sporting experiences within the context PE (59). Its design seeks to replicate the structure and culture of sport as it exists in society, fostering meaningful participation and deeper learning through six defining features: seasons, team affiliation, formal competition, record keeping, culminating events, and a celebratory atmosphere (60).

A defining characteristic of SEM is its season-based organisation, which enables extended engagement with a smaller number of activities, thereby deepening students' understanding and skill development. Students of varied skill levels are assigned to teams that remain consistent throughout the season, fostering a sense of belonging, continuity, and shared responsibility. Within this stable structure, small-group activities enable students to plan, practise, and collaborate, enhancing both social interaction and cooperative learning (61). The competitive structure of SEM mirrors authentic sport experiences. Teams participate in scheduled games that contribute to a ranking system, promoting motivation and accountability.

According to Siedentop et al. (55), the overarching goal of SEM is to cultivate a learning context that generates experiences as authentic as possible to real sport. Beyond physical competence, the model provides opportunities for students to engage in diverse sport-related roles such as coach, referee, journalist, marketer, or team manager, thereby developing a broad range of transferable skills (55). These experiences strengthen key personal and social capacities including teamwork, leadership, empathy, responsibility, and autonomy (62). The SEM can also be interpreted through the lens of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It aligns closely with Goal 8.3, which advocates for the promotion of entrepreneurship, creativity, and innovation, as the model encourages students to assume initiative and demonstrate leadership within their teams (24). Furthermore, it supports Goal 8.2, which emphasises the pursuit of higher levels of economic productivity through diversification and innovation, and Goal 4.4, which focuses on equipping learners with skills relevant to employment and entrepreneurship. Through SEM, students can develop collaboration, communication, and organisational skills that extend beyond sport to professional and civic contexts.

Finally, SEM's emphasis on equity, cooperation, and shared decision-making reflects the values of Goal 16.7, which promotes inclusive and participatory processes. By integrating authentic sport structures with educational aims, the SEM can not only enriche the learning experience in PE but also contribute to students' personal development and the broader global agenda for sustainable and inclusive growth (24).

The Adventure Learning Model (ALM) seeks to create learning experiences that engage students with the natural environment through activities involving elements of real or perceived risk (63). Rooted in experiential and environmental education traditions, this model is grounded in the belief that human potential is realised through meaningful interaction with nature. Adventure learning provides an educational context that challenges students physically and psychologically, fostering resilience, self-awareness, and environmental stewardship (64).

In PE, the ALM is particularly effective in promoting outdoor learning and physical activity during students' leisure time (64). By engaging learners in adventurous and exploratory experiences, it supports the development of problem-solving skills, cooperation, and emotional regulation. The WHO also highlights the importance of such approaches, recognising that participation in outdoor physical activities can promote environmental awareness and contribute to planetary health (65).

While environmental care is embedded within several SDGs, Goal 13 (Climate Action), Goal 14 (Life Below Water), and Goal 15 (Life on Land) have the most direct connections with PE. However, the ALM can be meaningfully aligned with Goal 13.1, which emphasises strengthening adaptive capacities to climate-related risks and natural disasters, and Goal 13.3, which advocates for improving education and institutional action to mitigate climate change (24). Adventure learning activities, such as orienteering, camping, or environmental expeditions, inherently build students' understanding of sustainability and climate resilience.

Additionally, the model aligns with Goal 12.1, which promotes sustainable consumption and the efficient use of natural resources, by encouraging learners to engage with and care for their environment responsibly. It also supports Goal 8.3, which highlights sustainable tourism and the promotion of local culture. Adventure-based learning can directly contribute to these aims by integrating physical activity with environmental appreciation and community engagement.

Empirical evidence further suggests that experiential learning in natural settings enhances students' global self-worth and perceived social acceptance (66). By combining physical challenge with reflective practice, adventure learning cultivates self-efficacy, collaboration, and ecological consciousness. Thus, within PE, the ALM not only enriches physical and social development but also contributes to global sustainability and wellbeing through transformative outdoor education.

The independent production of teaching aids involves the collection, recycling, processing and transformation of raw materials to produce teaching aids needed for PE teaching (67). However, educators should consider safety and liability implications when using independently produced materials. Teaching aids not purchased from certified manufacturers may not be covered under manufacturer liability policies; therefore, extra care should be taken to ensure such materials are safe, developmentally appropriate, and used correctly (e.g., routine inspection, clear usage protocols, and supervision). PE teachers believe that the use of self-made objects contributes to the cognitive, motor, physical, effective and value development of students (68). Furthermore, the creation of new resources for PE teaching by reusing materials encourages the development of ecological and responsible awareness, as well as personal values and attitudes that contribute to the achievement of these goals (69).

This model also appears in PE for other reasons. It appears as a solution to limited resources and the lack of sports equipment in many schools, it allows the creation of adaptable aids, increases students' motivation, enjoyment and interest, and the approach to this model allows for easy connection with other methodologies (70). In addition, previous research on self-made teaching aids has shown that this model allows for greater availability of props that help students increase their motor experiences in PE classes and increase exercise activity (71). Self-made teaching aids can motivate students to engage in physical activity outside of PE classes (72). In case students have difficulty implementing PE content in their free time due to economic barriers, self-made teaching aids could be a solution (68).

Furthermore, these ideas are in line with the Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030 proposed by the WHO, highlighting the importance of promoting physical activity with an emphasis on environmental protection and sustainable development of the planet (15–17). This model could be linked to goals 13.1 and 13.3, which generally advocate the importance of a clean environment or reducing the consequences of global warming (24). There is also a connection between the model of self-production of teaching aids and global goal 12, or specific goals 12.1, which seeks to achieve sustainability in production and consumption processes, 12.2, which refers to the efficient use of natural resources, 12.5, which refers to the reduction of waste, and 12.8, which refers to ensuring the quality of information (24).

Finally, the collaborative environment that is created, as well as the creativity that is encouraged, will enable the development of skills related to entrepreneurship (goals 4.4 Improving skills for access to employment, decent work and entrepreneurship and 8.3 Entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation and promoting the formalization and growth of enterprises) (24).