Depression is among the most prevalent mental disorders worldwide and remains a leading cause of disability. According to data from the World Health Organization, approximately 332 million people are expected to experience depression by 2025 (1). The core characteristics of depression include a persistent low mood and anhedonia (2). Of greater concern, depression frequently impairs cognitive function (3), resulting in broad declines in attention, working memory, executive function, and information-processing speed (4, 5), which substantially diminish social functioning and quality of life. Existing research indicates that individuals with major depressive disorder exhibit cognitive impairments in these domains (6). Crucially, such deficits often persist beyond the acute episode; substantial evidence shows that even after partial or complete remission, many individuals continue to exhibit varying degrees of “cognitive residual symptoms,” which impede the recovery of daily functioning, reintegration into social roles, and effective management of relapse risk (7, 8). Consequently, treatments that target affective symptoms alone are often insufficient for achieving comprehensive recovery. Moreover, standard pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions produce limited and variable effects on both depressive symptoms and cognitive functioning, underscoring the need to explore multimodal intervention approaches.

Physical activity is widely recognized as a potent non-pharmacological intervention for improving mental health and cognitive function (9, 10), and recent frameworks have further highlighted its role as an integral component in innovative strategies for suicide prevention and depression management (11). Among various forms of exercise, Taekwondo—an integrated martial art combining physical training with traditional cultural elements—has been increasingly regarded as a promising holistic intervention. Compared with other physical activities, Taekwondo entails more complex movement patterns and reaction tasks, emphasizing the cultivation of willpower and behavioral discipline through concentration, meditation, and breath control (12). These practices promote self-control and emotional regulation, thereby alleviating negative emotions such as depression and anxiety (13). Empirical evidence has confirmed that participation in Taekwondo improves mental health across diverse populations (14, 15). Long-term and regular Taekwondo training not only reduces depressive and anxiety symptoms but also strengthens self-efficacy and emotional regulation (16). Recent studies have demonstrated the benefits of Taekwondo training on executive function and cognitive control abilities in participants (17, 18). These findings are supported by exercise-induced brain plasticity theory, which posits that long-term, complex physical activities systematically trigger adaptive remodeling of brain structure and function (19). At the behavioral level, extensive research has confirmed that Taekwondo effectively enhances executive function, working memory, and cognitive control across diverse participant groups, including healthy males and middle-aged/elderly females (20, 21).

Numerous randomized controlled trials have demonstrated the positive effects of Taekwondo interventions on cognitive function and emotional well-being. However, academic consensus regarding Taekwondo's impact on cognitive abilities remains elusive. Research indicates that regular Taekwondo training can improve mental health and enhance cognitive function (22, 23). Recent studies, however, challenge this view, suggesting that while Taekwondo training may moderately improve emotional regulation, its impact on cognitive function is not significant (24, 25). These divergent findings likely stem from substantial heterogeneity in existing studies regarding intervention dosage (e.g., training intensity, frequency, duration), study populations (e.g., age, health status), and measured cognitive dimensions. These sources of heterogeneity have not been systematically addressed in current reviews. Therefore, a deeper systematic analysis is needed to more specifically and comprehensively evaluate the effects of Taekwondo training on depression and cognitive function, ensuring more accurate and reliable conclusions.

Although preliminary research has demonstrated the positive effects of Taekwondo on depression and cognitive function, existing systematic reviews and meta-analyses still exhibit several limitations. Therefore, this study employs systematic review and meta-analysis methods to comprehensively analyze all randomized controlled trials examining the effects of Taekwondo on depression and cognitive function. This aims to provide theoretical support and practical guidance on the overall efficacy of Taekwondo intervention in addressing depression and cognitive health.

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with established methodological guidance for evidence synthesis, primarily the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. The reporting of the review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement to ensure transparency and completeness. In addition, we used the GRADE approach to rate the overall certainty of evidence for each primary outcome, with detailed ratings presented in Supplementary S8. This review was conducted in compliance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement (26). The complete PRISMA checklist is provided in Supplementary S1, demonstrating compliance with all relevant reporting requirements. The protocol for this systematic review has been registered with PROSPERO (CRD 420251173580). Throughout the review process, all steps outlined in the PRISMA statement were strictly adhered to, ensuring transparency.

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to comprehensively examine existing research on the effects of Taekwondo intervention on depression and cognitive function. The aim was to reveal the potential mechanisms underlying Taekwondo's impact on depression and cognitive function across different age groups and to propose scientifically effective Taekwondo intervention protocols. The findings indicate that Taekwondo training significantly improves depressive symptoms (SMD = −0.54; 95% CI = −0.84 to −0.24; I² = 59.2%) and enhances cognitive function (SMD = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.17–0.81; I² = 51.4%). These findings confirm the dual health benefits of Taekwondo as an integrated mind-body exercise intervention.

Our findings are consistent with existing evidence demonstrating that Taekwondo alleviates depressive symptoms and enhances cognitive function (42–45). By simultaneously examining depressive symptoms and cognitive outcomes, this review addresses limitations of prior work that focused exclusively on single domains, thereby offering a more comprehensive evaluation of Taekwondo's therapeutic potential. A recent meta-analysis by Gao et al. (46), which included 15 studies, reported significant reductions in depressive symptoms among older women (ES = −0.635, p < 0.001), findings that closely align with the effect size estimated in our review. Differences in the number of included studies primarily arose from the more stringent eligibility criteria applied here, as the present review restricted inclusion to peer-reviewed journal articles and randomized controlled trials. Notably, Gao et al. reported substantial heterogeneity (I² = 85.8%), whereas the heterogeneity observed in our review was comparatively lower (I² = 59.2%), although still moderate to high, suggesting variability in intervention protocols, outcome measures, and study quality (28). Similarly, Ben et al. (47) found an effect size of SMD = −0.45 (I² = 71.37%) for general physical activity interventions targeting childhood and adolescent depression. The slightly larger effect observed for Taekwondo in the present review (SMD = −0.54, I² = 59.2%) suggests that Taekwondo may confer additional psychological benefits beyond those afforded by physical activity alone. From a self-determination theory perspective, Taekwondo's structured training environment may support the fulfilment of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs, thereby promoting intrinsic motivation, psychological resilience, and mental well-being (48). Its training principles also foster a strong sense of competence and belonging (49), contributing to a “mind–body unity” process in which external demands become internalised as self-driven behavioural goals. Regarding cognitive function, Zou et al.'s systematic review of 18 studies (50) reported that Taekwondo training enhances cognitive development and inhibitory control in younger populations and attenuates cognitive decline in middle-aged and older adults. However, several studies, such as Bae (25) and Roh et al. (31), did not detect significant cognitive improvements, possibly due to insufficient training frequency. Although previous reviews suggested that Taekwondo benefits mood and cognition in older adults (51, 52), the widespread use of quasi-experimental or observational designs limits the causal inferences that can be drawn (53). By restricting inclusion to randomized controlled trials, the present review provides more robust evidence, but it also narrows the available evidence base and may limit the generalizability and broad applicability of the findings compared with a synthesis that additionally includes high-quality quasi-experimental studies. To further examine potential mechanisms, a narrative theoretical analysis was conducted, and future directions were proposed based on patterns observed in the current literature.

To further explore potential sources of substantial heterogeneity in intervention effects, subgroup analyses were performed. However, because each subgroup contained relatively few studies and heterogeneity persisted, these findings should be interpreted with caution to avoid overgeneralising causal inferences. Short-term interventions (≤12 weeks) yielded the largest improvements in depressive symptoms, whereas long-term interventions produced smaller effect sizes but demonstrated lower heterogeneity. This pattern does not suggest that long-term training is ineffective, but may instead reflect declining adherence or psychological fatigue over extended intervention periods (54, 55). This underscores the need to prioritise sustained motivation and engagement in practical applications and further supports the effectiveness of short-term interventions in regulating depressive symptoms. This is consistent with prior evidence, such as the meta-analysis by Wang et al. showing that an 8-week exercise programme significantly reduced depressive symptoms (SMD = −0.82) (54), and the analysis by Chen et al. reporting greater benefits for interventions lasting fewer than 12 weeks (SMD = −0.76, p < 0.01) (56). In relation to cognitive outcomes, long-term interventions (>16 weeks) generated relatively large effect sizes (SMD = 0.996), a finding supported by previous research. Structured exercise may elicit early cognitive gains through mechanisms such as enhanced neuroplasticity, increased secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and improved cerebral blood flow and cognitive arousal (33, 57). Nevertheless, the marked heterogeneity observed for long-term interventions (I² = 83.0%) suggests substantial inter-individual variability, potentially attributable to differences in baseline cognitive functioning across diverse populations. With respect to intervention frequency, training at least three times per week yielded significant improvements in both cognitive function (SMD = 0.354) and depressive symptoms (SMD = −0.921). This corresponds to a dose–response pattern widely reported in exercise psychology (58) and aligns with existing evidence (43, 55, 59). However, given the limited number of studies in each subgroup, the influence of residual confounding cannot be excluded, highlighting the need for rigorously designed dose–response trials. Analyses of single-session duration indicated that 30–50-minute sessions produced moderate and stable benefits for both depressive symptoms and cognitive function, consistent with prior findings. Neuroimaging evidence suggests that moderate-duration exercise enhances activation in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, thereby supporting emotional regulation and memory processing (60, 61). Regarding gender, evidence suggests that female participants derive more pronounced mental health benefits from Taekwondo training, whereas male participants tend to exhibit stronger cognitive gains. Although these trends are supported by existing literature and are compatible with our findings (62–64), they may be partly attributable to gender-related differences in brain structural connectivity. Given the significant gender imbalance within the included studies, this observation should be interpreted as a preliminary hypothesis rather than a definitive conclusion (65). Overall, moderate-intensity taekwondo interventions (≥3 sessions per week, 30–50 min per session, with a duration of >12 weeks) have been demonstrated to significantly improve depressive symptoms and cognitive function. This finding is consistent with existing research, which indicates that moderate-intensity interventions can effectively enhance mental health and cognitive function (66). For instance, Carta et al. reported that 12 weeks of moderate-intensity exercise, with a minimum of 30 min per week, led to significant improvements in overall cognitive performance (such as processing speed and memory) in older adults (67). Furthermore, a recent systematic review found that exercise interventions, including those of moderate intensity, yielded moderate improvements in depressive symptoms, highlighting exercise as a crucial adjunct strategy for mental health (68).

Although this study synthesised 14 randomised controlled trials and systematically quantified the effects of Taekwondo training on depressive symptoms and cognitive function across diverse age groups, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the absence of medium- to long-term follow-up assessments in most trials restricts understanding of the durability of intervention effects and prevents evaluation of potential rebound phenomena after training cessation. Second, substantial heterogeneity existed in intervention protocols and outcome assessment tools. Intervention durations ranged from 8 to 78 weeks, weekly frequencies from 1 to 7 sessions, and single-session durations from 30 to 70 min. Depression was measured using tools such as the BDI-II, K-GDS, and SCL-90, while cognitive outcomes were assessed using the Stroop test, K-MMSE, and other measures. Although standardised effect-size pooling and subgroup analyses partially mitigated these variations, they may still influence the precision of pooled estimates and limit cross-study comparability. Third, sample compositions were both small and diverse, encompassing children, adolescents, adults, older adults, and special populations such as individuals with ADHD. Given the pronounced differences in neurodevelopment, cognitive baselines, and emotion-regulation mechanisms across these groups, the underlying pathways through which Taekwondo exerts its effects may differ, thereby limiting the generalisability of aggregated results. Future research should employ high-quality RCTs targeting distinct demographic or clinical populations to determine whether intervention mechanisms remain consistent across age and developmental groups. In addition, by restricting inclusion to randomised controlled trials, we may have excluded potentially informative quasi-experimental and observational studies that could have increased the number and diversity of eligible studies; while this design restriction enhances internal validity, it further constrains the external validity and real-world generalisability of our findings. Fourth, potential cultural bias must be considered. Existing evidence is predominantly derived from East Asian regions—particularly China and South Korea—with minimal representation from Western countries and none from South America, Africa, or Oceania. Given the cultural specificity of Taekwondo as an East Asian martial art, its acceptance, delivery formats, and psychological effects may vary across cultural contexts, constraining the global applicability of the findings. Finally, although subgroup analyses were conducted to explore sources of heterogeneity, the limited number of studies within several subgroups means that these results should be regarded as exploratory rather than definitive.

Despite these limitations, this meta-analysis demonstrates several notable strengths. First, the study restricted inclusion to randomised controlled trials published in peer-reviewed journals, thereby enhancing methodological rigour and reducing risks of bias commonly associated with quasi-experimental or observational designs. Second, unlike prior reviews focusing exclusively on single psychological outcomes, this study concurrently evaluated depressive symptoms and cognitive function, resulting in a more comprehensive assessment of Taekwondo's mental-health benefits. Finally, through subgroup analyses and meta-regression, the study provides valuable exploratory insights into how intervention duration, training frequency, session length, and gender composition may influence intervention efficacy. These findings provide an essential foundation for optimising future Taekwondo-based intervention protocols and guiding the development of tailored clinical or community programmes.

Future research should prioritise multicentre, large-sample, long-term follow-up trials implemented under standardised intervention protocols. It should also evaluate the stability of intervention effects across diverse cultural contexts to produce more reliable, mechanism-informed, and globally generalisable scientific evidence. Such work will offer stronger evidence-based support for Taekwondo as an adjunctive intervention for depression and cognitive impairment.

On the basis of moderate-certainty evidence as rated by GRADE, this meta-analysis indicates that Taekwondo training demonstrates a moderate-to-large effect size in improving depressive symptoms and enhancing cognitive function. Specifically, Taekwondo training significantly improves depressive symptoms, with the most pronounced effects observed in interventions conducted ≥3 times per week, lasting ≤40 min per session, and continuing for ≤12 weeks. In contrast, the enhancement of cognitive function through Taekwondo training is more pronounced in moderate-intensity interventions conducted ≥3 times per week, lasting 30–50 min per session, and continuing for >16 weeks. Furthermore, the research indicates that female participants derive more pronounced psychological and cognitive benefits from Taekwondo training. Subgroup analyses suggest that variables such as intervention frequency, duration, and intensity play crucial moderating roles in treatment outcomes. However, it should be noted that the number of included studies is limited, sample sizes are generally small, and some studies exhibit methodological flaws, including non-standardized randomization procedures and a lack of pre-registration of analysis plans. The robustness and broad applicability of the current findings require further validation through future randomized controlled trials with larger sample sizes and higher methodological quality.