The concept of “dual career” was formally introduced in the European Commission's (EC) 2007 White Paper on Sport; its definition has since been shaped predominantly within the European context (1). According to the 2012 EU Guidelines on Dual Careers of Athletes: Recommended Policy Actions in Support of Dual Careers in High-Performance Sport, a dual career refers to “the requirements for athletes to successfully initiate, develop and finalize an elite sporting career as part of a lifelong career, in combination with the pursuit of education and/or work” (2). Within this framework, dual careers in university sports are understood as “the combination of elite sport and education,” emphasizing the simultaneous pursuit of athletic and academic development (3).

Due to the recent expansion of university admission pathways that do not require academic testing, the number of student-athletes in Japan has increased substantially (4). However, this growth has brought several challenges, including long training hours, frequent class absences due to competitions, limited time for career preparation, and inadequate academic engagement among some student-athletes (5, 6). In addition to these academic and scheduling constraints, recent international studies have highlighted systemic barriers such as insufficient flexibility in university curricula (7), limited financial aid and institutional support (8), restricted access to appropriate sports facilities (7), and sleep-related difficulties among student-athletes managing dual demands (9).These issues have raised concerns about how student-athletes can effectively balance academic responsibilities and athletic commitments within the university setting.

In response to these emerging challenges, the Japan Sports Agency established the Japan Association for University Athletics and Sports (UNIVAS) in 2019 as a national framework to support student-athletes. UNIVAS aims to promote university sports, strengthen interuniversity cooperation, enforce compliance, and enhance dual-career development through educational support and research initiatives (10). As of April 2025, it comprises 225 member universities and supports approximately 150,000 student-athletes (11).

Within its mission, UNIVAS defines a dual career as “engaging in athletic activities while concurrently participating in academic or other non-sport activities” (12). The organization emphasizes that university life offers opportunities not only to pursue specialized knowledge but also to develop leadership and personal competencies that can be applied to future societal roles. Despite these national efforts, a 2022 web-based survey (n = 1,694) found that 61.0% of student-athletes were unfamiliar with the concept of a dual career, and 43.1% had never considered their post-athletic career (13), indicating persistently low awareness and limited engagement in dual-career planning.

Although interest in dual careers has grown since the formation of UNIVAS, Japanese research has primarily focused on perceptions and awareness rather than specific competencies. In contrast, European countries have advanced the development of quantitative assessment tools to evaluate dual-career competencies, which are essential for understanding and supporting student-athletes.

Dual-career competencies refer to the skills and resources that enable student-athletes to balance academic demands, athletic performance, and career development. These may include self-management, career planning, emotional regulation, social support, and adaptability (14–16). Research has shown that these competencies vary depending on the athlete's developmental stage (16). Stambulova's (17) athletic career transition model and Wylleman and Rosier's (18) holistic career model highlight the evolving demands placed on athletes during sports, education, and social transitions.

By integrating these models, researchers have identified the competencies required by athletes to navigate dual career demands (19–21). Most of the research has been qualitative. For instance, Aquilina (19) interviewed elite and professional student-athletes from France, Finland, and the UK, revealing that success in both sports and education was equally important. The participants also highlighted the need for supportive networks and the ability to seek help. Tekavc et al. (21) interviewed 12 former elite athletes and found that achieving a dual career requires resilience and competencies that are transferable beyond sports. Quantitative approaches have recently emerged. Lupo et al. (21) used the Student-Athletes' Motivation towards Sports and Academics Questionnaire (SAMSAQ) to assess motivation, while Sandstedt et al. (22) applied the Student-Athlete Career Situation Inventory (SACSI) to measure career attitudes. Although useful, these tools do not capture the full range of dual-career competencies as highlighted in qualitative studies (16).

To fill this gap, the Erasmus + Sport project developed the Dual Career Competency Questionnaire for Athletes (DCCQ-A), which assesses both perceived importance and possession of dual career competencies (16, 23). The DCCQ-A consists of four dimensions: (i) dual-career management, (ii) career planning, (iii) emotional awareness, and (iv) social intelligence and adaptability. De Brandt et al. (16) found that while athletes recognized the importance of these competencies, they often lacked confidence in their abilities. Since then, DCCQ-A has been adapted for use in multiple languages. Grubertt et al. (24) validated a Portuguese version in Brazil, recommending further validation based on competitive level and developmental stage. Our research team conducted a preliminary validation of the Japanese version of the DCCQ-A. However, it lacks sufficient psychometric properties, likely due to the sample size and institutional limitations (25). Despite growing interest, Japan lacks a standardized and reliable tool for assessing dual-career competencies. Therefore, a web-based tool is required to facilitate large-scale research across diverse regions. Online assessments offer flexibility and accessibility and can serve as practical tools for coaches and managers (26, 27). Moreover, these tools enable cross-cultural comparisons, helping institutions identify and address specific support needs. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a web-based Japanese version of the DCCQ-A (DCCQ-AJ) that maintains its original structure and item count. The tool was designed to visualize student-athletes' dual-career competencies, thereby supporting coaches and administrators in identifying individual needs and informing them of the design of tailored developmental programs. Based on previous European findings, we hypothesized that student-athletes would rate the perceived importance of dual-career competencies higher than their perceived possession across all competency domains. In Japan, where student-athletes vary widely in their academic and athletic backgrounds, standardized and scalable tools offer a pathway for evidence-based, strategic support.

This study aimed to validate and apply the DCCQ-AJ, which retains the same item count and factor structure as the widely used European original (16), to assess the current state of dual career competencies among Japanese student-athletes. Content validity analysis showed high item-level CVC values across both the importance and possession scales, with overall adjusted CVCs exceeding 0.80. These results indicate that the DCCQ-AJ has a strong conceptual alignment with the competencies it intends to measure (28). Notably, the high ratings of both researchers and student-athletes suggest that the scale is not only theoretically sound but also practical and easy to understand in real-world contexts. The G–P analysis revealed that all 29 items discriminated significantly between the high- and low-scoring groups (p < .001), confirming the discriminative power of each item. In addition, Cronbach's alpha coefficients for all subscales exceeded the standard threshold of 0.70 (33), indicating good internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated good model fit for both the perceived importance and possession dimensions, supporting the factor validity of the DCCQ-AJ and confirming its structural equivalence with the original instrument. Unlike a previous pilot study by our team (25) that suffered from sample limitations, the current study employed a broader and more diverse sample, allowing for more robust psychometric validation. Establishing cross-cultural equivalence is essential to develop a Japanese version of the DCCQ-A. Previous studies have emphasized the importance of verifying measurement equivalence when adapting psychological scales for international comparison (34). Our findings suggest that the DCCQ-AJ demonstrates conceptual and functional equivalence to the original version, making it a valuable tool for both domestic and cross-national studies. It may also help identify the context-specific challenges faced by Japanese student-athletes in pursuing dual careers. Regarding the perceived importance of competencies, most items exceeded a mean score of 4.0, and all surpassed 3.0. These results indicate that Japanese student-athletes recognize these competencies as at least “somewhat important” to “important” for dual career development. This aligns with the findings of European studies that utilized the DCCQ-A (16, 23, 24), affirming that student-athletes in Japan, like their European counterparts, view these competencies as critical. Interestingly, while previous surveys in Japan reported a low awareness of the dual-career concept (13), the present study suggests that student-athletes understand and acknowledge the importance of specific competencies when presented concretely. This implies that raising awareness of dual careers may benefit from tools such as the DCCQ-AJ, making the concept more tangible. Coaches and administrators should support student-athletes in understanding both the general concept and specific skills required for successful dual-career development. For perceived possession, only three items “Ability to collaborate with support staff in study and sport,” “Ability to maintain relations with important others,” and “Understanding the importance of rest and recuperation” had mean scores above 4.0, suggesting relatively higher self-confidence in these areas. Most other items hovered just above 3.0, indicating that many student-athletes feel they possess these competencies only “to some extent.” These trends mirror the findings of earlier studies (16, 23, 24), reinforce the need for competency-building support.

Paired t-tests revealed significant discrepancies between perceived importance and possession across all four domains; this suggests that student-athletes are aware of the importance of these competencies but do not feel fully equipped to embody them. In addition to statistical significance, the magnitude of these differences ranged from small to moderate, as indicated by effect sizes, and the 95% confidence intervals for mean differences did not include zero, confirming the robustness of the observed differences. Linnér et al. (23) observed similar findings among Swedish student-athletes, which led to the development of national guidelines for dual-career support based on DCCQ-A data. Japan could likewise consider leveraging the DCCQ-AJ to inform the creation of evidence-based development guidelines led by institutions such as the UNIVAS. A study by Pérez-Rivases et al. (35) in Spain also reported significant gaps between perceived importance and possession of dual career competencies, particularly in DCM and EMA, suggesting that these domains require the most support. By visualizing the gaps between perceived importance and possession, the DCCQ-A can help to identify concrete areas for improvement in dual-career training programs (16). Japan should use the DCCQ-AJ to investigate how to optimize support environments and educational programs for student-athletes. Notably, the domains with the largest gaps such as EMA and DCM may reflect the limited availability of formal psychological and career guidance services within Japanese university sport settings. Unlike several European countries where structured dual-career pathways and psychosocial support systems are well established (36), Japan's support infrastructure tends to be informal and highly dependent on institutional context (37). Furthermore, as Noguchi et al. (38) point out, many Japanese student-athletes hesitate to seek professional or interpersonal support, with nearly half reporting that they have no one to talk to about personal concerns. This reluctance is closely tied to cultural norms that value perseverance, emotional restraint, and interpersonal harmony, which can suppress self-expression and proactive help-seeking. These tendencies may limit the development or utilization of competencies such as emotional regulation and autonomous decision-making, even when athletes recognize their importance. Additionally, alternative admission systems such as athletic recommendation or admissions office pathways that do not necessarily require academic testing have proliferated in lower-ranked universities (4, 5), potentially resulting in student-athletes entering higher education without adequate access to dual-career guidance or structured developmental support. Consequently, a subset of student-athletes enter higher education without clear academic goals or career plans (5). Most athletes do not receive substantial support such as scholarships or tutoring and are classified as sub-elite athletes who must finance their education independently (37). These sub-elite athletes exhibit lower motivation and commitment to both sports and academia (4). Thus, dual career strategies should not be limited to elite athletes but should also encompass a broader population of sub-elite student-athletes. Taken together, the current findings align with the broader literature from Europe in terms of competency trends (16, 23, 35), but the magnitude and distribution of perceived possession may be shaped by Japan's unique cultural and institutional landscape. Although the present study treated Japanese student-athletes as a single group for analytical purposes, the sample comprised individuals from a wide range of sports, competitive levels, and university systems. These forms of heterogeneity may influence both the opportunities for support and the development of dual-career competencies. For instance, athletes in team-based or Olympic disciplines may benefit from more structured guidance and resources than those in non-Olympic or emerging sports. Likewise, students enrolled at higher-resourced private universities may have access to different forms of academic or career support compared to those in regional or lower-ranked institutions. Recognizing this diversity is important for interpreting the current findings and underscores the need to examine subgroup differences in future research. Future studies could adopt a comparative cross-cultural design to further investigate contextual variables such as national policies, cultural values, and university support systems moderate dual-career development. Since Japan's athlete population is more diverse than that of many Western countries, where support is often limited to internationally competitive athletes, domestic policy must be tailored accordingly. The DCCQ-AJ should be employed to develop competency-based dual-career programs customized for different athletic levels and educational backgrounds. This approach provides a more inclusive and effective support for Japan's unique student-athlete population.

Despite the strengths of this study (such as the large sample and robust validation process), several limitations should be noted. First, our analysis treated the sample as a single group; we did not examine competency differences between sports, competitive levels, or university systems. It remains possible that, for example, student-athletes in individual sports face different dual-career challenges than those in team sports, or that athletes at top-tier universities (with more support services) possess higher competency levels than those at institutions with fewer resources. Future research should stratify and compare such subgroups to determine how context influences dual-career competencies, as suggested by broader dual-career frameworks. Second, the study relied on self-reported measures of perceived importance and possession of competencies. Self-reporting can introduce biases (e.g., social desirability or differences in self-awareness), meaning that some student-athletes might overestimate or underestimate their true competence levels. Triangulating these findings with qualitative interviews or coach evaluations could provide a more objective picture. Third, our cross-sectional design offers a snapshot of dual-career competencies but cannot capture how these competencies develop or change over time. Longitudinal studies would be valuable to track student-athletes throughout their university years, examining when and how improvements in competencies occur and whether they translate into better dual-career outcomes (such as academic performance, well-being, or smoother career transitions). Building on these limitations, we outline several avenues for future research. One priority is to investigate how different support environments impact dual-career development. For example, researchers could compare student-athletes who are part of formal dual-career support programs (or sports-specific academic tracks) with those who receive minimal support, to assess the effect on competency acquisition. Additionally, given that the DCCQ-AJ is equivalent in structure to the original European DCCQ-A, cross-cultural studies are now feasible: future work can benchmark Japanese student-athletes' competencies against those in other countries to identify unique challenges or best practices. Another promising direction is intervention-based research. The significant gaps we identified between perceived importance and possession of competencies highlight areas for improvement; experimental studies or program evaluations could be conducted where specific interventions (e.g., time-management workshops, career planning seminars, or mental health and resilience training) are implemented and student-athletes' DCCQ-AJ scores are tracked pre- and post-intervention. Such studies would test whether targeted support can effectively close the competency gaps and improve dual-career readiness. In summary, acknowledging the diversity within the student-athlete population and addressing the noted limitations will not only refine our understanding of dual-career competencies but also guide the development of more nuanced, evidence-based support systems. Through continued research in these areas, we can work toward ensuring that all student-athletes across various sports, competitive levels, and institutions are equipped to succeed in both their athletic and academic pursuits.

This study validated the reliability and validity of the DCCQ-AJ, a web-based adaptation of the widely used and multilingual DCCQ-A. The DCCQ-AJ preserved its original structure and item composition and demonstrated sufficient psychometric properties, enabling its use in evaluating dual-career competencies among student-athletes in Japan. The findings revealed that while student-athletes recognized the importance of dual-career competencies, their perceived possession of these competencies lagged behind. This discrepancy highlights the need for systematic support programs tailored to develop these competencies. The DCCQ-AJ is a standardized and scalable tool for monitoring and visualizing student-athlete competencies nationwide. Given its online format, the DCCQ-AJ is well suited for large-scale implementation and longitudinal monitoring. It offers coaches and administrators a foundation for identifying athletes' needs and designing individualized support strategies. Its utility as an evaluation tool also makes it valuable for coaches to assess and support dual-career development within teams.