Gross motor skills are foundational elements of PA and include locomotor (e.g., broad jump, gallop, slide), object-control (e.g., throw, stationary dribble, kick), and stability skills (e.g., single leg stance) (15). Gross motor skills involve coordinating major body parts like arms and legs for activities such as jogging, kicking, and throwing (16). Since these skills utilize major body parts and movements, developing them is crucial for core stabilization, proprioception, and body control (17).

Gross motor skills are crucial for acquiring more advanced skills necessary for activities like sports, dance, and recreational PA, and are integral to the Physical Education curricula at the elementary school level (18–20). A lack of development of these skills at an early age often leads to failure to master these skills in adulthood (21). SHAPE America (22) emphasizes in Standard 1 the importance of developing competency in a variety of motor skills and movement patterns as a foundation for physical literacy.

Children's motor skill acquisition can predict adult PA patterns. In a 20-year longitudinal study, Lloyd et al. (23) examined the long-term association between motor skills at age 6 and PA at age 26. They found that proficient motor skills at age 6 were strongly associated with greater engagement in leisure PAs at age 26.

While it is critical for children to develop these skills, many cannot achieve competency in gross motor skills (24). Children from lower social classes tend to have lower gross motor skill development levels than those from middle and high social classes (25, 26, 62). Their limited access to PA and sports participation outside of school settings hinders their development of gross motor skills (27). Children with low gross motor skills may also have low levels of perceived competence for PA (28).

Perceived motor competence (PMC-C) is a psychological mental construct that falls within the sub-domain of physical competence, specifically referring to an individual's self-assessment of their actual motor competence (29). An individual's self-perception of motor skills can be a significant intermediary factor between motor skills and PA during childhood (30). PMC-C serves as the foundation for one's emotions, motivations, and behavior (31). It is known to play both a critical and determinant role in promoting PA among children and adolescents (20).

PMC-C has been consistently identified as a significant correlate of an individual's actual motor competence (32, 33). On the other hand, the apprehension that comes with failing the execution of gross motor actions can represent a barrier to sustained PA engagement over the course of one's life (34). A child's self-perception of their competence level, regardless of its accuracy, can have implications for their PA, emotional and social well-being (35, 63). Given that children are likely to withdraw from activities when they do not feel competent (20), PMC-C could serve as a critical predictor of PA levels. Children's perception of their capabilities to perform gross motor skills can mediate the relationship between actual motor competence and PA, suggesting that children's PMC-C significantly influences their PA engagement (33, 36, 37).

The impact of PMC-C on PA has also been studied qualitatively. Whitehead and Biddle (38) interviewed 47 adolescents in the United Kingdom to investigate the perceptions of PA among adolescent girls. The participants were asked about the factors related to PA and why they were perceived as influential in their PA. The study found that less active adolescents were concerned about their skills and how people perceived their skills, which influenced their willingness to participate in PA, regardless of their actual skill level. This shows that perceptions of competence and social evaluation play a critical role in determining the level of PA engagement.

Gross motor skills and PMC-C are linked to higher levels of PA. Developing gross motor skills enhances children's ability to participate in various PAs, and higher PMC-C boosts their confidence, making them more likely to engage in and enjoy PA (29, 36). Given this association, interventions aimed at improving these skills are important, especially since children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are often less physically active compared to their peers from middle and high-economic backgrounds.

A Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) consists of five key components designed to expand PA opportunities across the entire school community, particularly focusing on students. These components are: (a) quality Physical Education, (b) before- and after-school programs, (c) PA during school hours (such as classroom PA breaks and recess), (d) staff involvement, and (e) family and community engagement (39). The primary goal of CSPAP is to increase PA opportunities before, during, and after the school day. However, as Burns et al. (40) suggest, CSPAP may also contribute to the development of children's gross motor skills by providing more opportunities for physical activity.

Researchers have extensively examined the impact of CSPAP and found it to improve motor skills (41–45). Despite this potential benefit, only two studies have specifically investigated the impact of CSPAP programs on gross motor skills among students from low socioeconomic backgrounds (40, 46). Burns et al. (40) examined the effects of a 12-week CSPAP on gross motor skill development in 1,460 school-aged children (grades K-6) from low-income families, finding a 10% improvement in motor skills. Burns et al. (46) studied the effect of a year-long CSPAP on gross motor skills in 959 children (grades 1–6) from low-income schools, observing significant improvements. However, these studies lacked a control group, limiting its results’ validity, and also focused on the during-school components of CSPAP.

Furthermore, no identified research has examined the impact of after-school CSPAP component on students’ gross motor skills in children with low socioeconomic status. Additionally, no CSPAP studies have aimed to improve PMC-C and gross motor skills simultaneously. Therefore, this study aimed to address the limitations of previous studies and fill the research gap by examining the impact of a five-week after-school program on overhand throwing and perceived motor competence in students with low socioeconomic status.

Examining the impact of an after-school intervention on students with low socioeconomic status’ gross motor skills and perceived motor competence may help researchers implement interventions based on perceived motor competence and gross motor skills and design cost-effective interventions to help children with low socioeconomic status attain gross motor skills and increase their perception of motor competence.

Previous research has demonstrated the positive impact of CSPAP on improving students’ gross motor skills with students from low-socioeconomic backgrounds (40, 46). Additionally, Chan et al. (30) suggest that providing fun, structured, and supportive environments enhances students’ perceived competence. Therefore, we hypothesized that a five-week after-school program would effectively improve students’ overhand throwing skills and perceived competence.

The study was conducted at a Title 1 school in Chandler, Arizona. A total of 80 elementary school students in grades kindergarten to 6th participated in this study. The intervention group consisted of 60 students (26 boys, 34 girls; M_grade = 4.27, SD = .43), while the control group consisted of 20 students (7 boys, 13 girls; M_grade = 4.00, SD = .35). The majority of the participants were Hispanic (86.3%), followed by African American/Black (6.3%) and Mixed (5.0).

Participants were recruited through parental consent and student assent forms sent to all students at the school. Only students who returned signed consent forms and agreed to participate were included in the study. No explicit inclusion or exclusion criteria were applied, as the goal was to maximize participation and include a diverse group representative of the school population.

The first author delivered all the after-school program skill lessons, holds a bachelor's and a master's degree in Physical Education, has six years of experience teaching Physical Education, and is currently enrolled in a PhD program in Physical Education. Additionally, the first author received training in Dynamic Physical Education (DPE) curriculum (64) during his university studies and was trained on TGMD-2 by a member of the research team.

The students in the intervention group were taught 25 min once a week for 5 weeks. The first author taught the lessons using the Dynamic Physical Education (DPE) for Elementary School Children curriculum (64). The DPE curriculum is comprised of four parts: introduction, fitness, skill focus, and closing activity. However, given the brief duration in the after-school program (25 min), the research/school team adjusted the DPE curriculum by consolidating it into three sections, omitting the fitness component.

Consequently, each lesson began with a 5 min general warm-up, followed by the skill focus phase. In this phase, students were split into four groups, each rotating through four stations. The activities at these stations were designed to enhance students’ overhand throwing skills through engaging exercises. For example, students aimed at hitting targets on the wall with overhand throws, progressively increasing their distance to challenge their accuracy and strength. They also focused on stepping back while throwing to improve coordination and footwork. Additionally, they worked on knocking down cones using overhand throws, which encouraged precision and control in a fun, goal-oriented environment.

The students were provided five skill cues before starting the station activities (side to target, uppercase L, step-twist-throw, step with your opposite foot, follow throw) and were asked to perform overhand throwing without the ball before starting the activities at the stations. Each group stayed for 2–3 min at every station and then moved to the next station when they heard the whistle, as instructed.

In the closing part of the after-school program lesson, the students engaged in 10 min of gameplay emphasizing overhand throwing. This gameplay was designed to apply the skills learned in a dynamic and interactive setting, enhancing the students’ ability to transfer skills to real game situations. All the games were small-sided to ensure more engagement, and every student had a ball. An example of these games is knocking the cones. Here, the students were divided into four teams, with each team staying in one quadrant of the gym. Each quadrant of the gym had many cones, and each team tried to knock out the cones of the team in the quadrant opposite them with a ball by performing overhand throwing while defending their cones. The students were reminded to follow the four steps for successful overhand throwing during the game. The first author provided individual feedback to the students when needed.

To ensure fidelity to the curriculum, the first author followed a detailed lesson plan based on DPE curriculum for each session. These plans were reviewed by a faculty advisor with expertise in DPE prior to implementation. Additionally, two members of the research team, both with expertise in the DPE curriculum, observed each session to ensure adherence to the planned activities. Observations confirmed 100% implementation of the curriculum, and any necessary adjustments were addressed in real time to maintain consistency and alignment with the intervention structure. Feedback from the research team was provided to the first author throughout the study to further ensure fidelity to the curriculum.

The control group consisted of students who did not participate in the after-school program. With parental consent and student assent, these students followed their regular physical education curriculum. Outside of Physical Education, students in the control group were asked to follow their normal routines without additional structured physical activity. This contrasts with the CSPAP intervention, which provided targeted skill-based instruction in overhand throwing through a structured and supportive environment.

First, a pre-test was conducted for both the intervention and control groups. Upon entering the gymnasium, students started with a general warm-up and PA, supervised by a research team member. Another team member directed students to the testing area in the gym's corner, one at a time. The testing area was marked by a cone and a ball, positioned 20 feet from the wall. To minimize peer influence during the test, students faced away from the center while participating in PA.

Assessments were conducted individually. Initially, the researcher demonstrated an overhand throw. Subsequently, students were instructed to throw the ball as far as they could toward the wall without receiving specific instructions on technique (50).

Both PMC-C and TGMD-2 were subsequently administered to the students during pre- and post-testing. In order to maximize program intervention time, a team member administered the PMC-C survey during the school day with students by class. Students were asked to read the instructions and discuss a sample question. They were given ample time to complete the assessment.

On the final day, assessment procedures were replicated for the post-test for both groups. The same team member conducted both the p애re- post-tests.

To verify the assumption of normal distribution, a prerequisite for conducting an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed. Then the ANCOVA was conducted to examine the difference in TGMD-2 and PMC-C test scores between groups, with pre-test scores and demographic variables included as covariates. Pre-test scores were included as covariates to control for baseline differences, to make sure that group comparisons accurately reflect the intervention's effect and enhancing the validity of the results.

Multiple regression analyses were performed to investigate the predictive value of changes in scores from pre-test to post-test for TGMD-2, and to determine if these changes predicted similar changes in PMC-C scores. Additionally, a separate regression analysis was performed to assess the impact of attendance on score changes from pre- to post-test for both TGMD-2 and PMC-C. The significance level was set at p < .05.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that has explored the effects of the after-school CSPAP component on students’ gross motor skills in students with low socioeconomic status. Additionally, this is the first study to simultaneously examine the impact of CSPAP on both gross motor skills and perceived motor competence. Although the increase in perceived motor competence was non-significant, the study is crucial as it identifies potential variables that could be adjusted for future studies. Another strength of the study is the short duration of the intervention and each session, which was 25 min once a week. After-school programs are not intended solely to teach students motor skills or engage them in PA, as they typically include time for other activities like homework and snacks. Our study demonstrated that 25 min can effectively improve students’ overhand throwing.

The study's results should be interpreted with caution; first, the study was conducted at a single Title I school, which limits the applicability of the findings to schools in different socioeconomic or geographic contexts. The unique characteristics of the participating school and community may not represent broader populations, and thus, the results should be interpreted with caution when applied to other settings.

Second, in our study, the control group had fewer students than the intervention class, which can decrease the reliability of the findings. Third, our study utilized a quasi-experimental design and employed convenience sampling, which may introduce selection and sampling biases, respectively. These factors limit the ability to generalize the findings to broader populations and may affect the validity of causal inferences regarding the intervention's effectiveness. Third, while the overhand throwing sub-test was selected due to the importance of overhand throwing and its association with many sports, utilizing all the skills included in TGMD-2 could give us a more comprehensive view of the impact of after-school programs on gross motor skills. Video recording is recognized for allowing multiple reviews and enhancing the reliability of assessments (30). However, this method was not utilized because parental approval for video recording was not granted, which may have impacted the precision of our observations and overall findings.