To develop an international educational program for judo coaches, incorporating educational modules and comprehensible content tailored to the specific needs of coaches from diverse social and cultural backgrounds, the present eminence-based phase of the EdJCO project applied an ethnographic research approach (56). To collect a broad range of opinions on key educational aspects of judo for older practitioners, the EdJCO research team agreed to purposefully apply the survey methodology for gaining access to international judo coaches (54). As a result of a systematic literature review (40, 41) and seven national focus groups (41), the research team identified six macro-areas representing the foundations of an edutional program for judo coaches of older practitioners (52): (i) Aging Process; (ii) Safety and First Aid; (iii) Organization and Environment; (iv) Physiology and Functional Fitness; (v) Psychology and Mental Health; and (vi) Teaching and Training. To gather coaches' opinions and insights about the macro-areas and their sub-domains, the survey methodology was considered as the most effective and appropriate method according to the following eight factors (51, 52, 54): (1)

Efficiency and reach. By distributing surveys electronically, researchers can efficiently reach and include a diverse, large and representative sample of coaches across different geographical locations in a short time;

In the present study, the tailored online survey was developed to investigate coaches' perceptions regarding their perceived knowledge and needs of specific education for training older judo practitioners (Table 1). At the beginning of the survey, demographic questions were included to anonymously assess general (e.g., gender, age, nationality, highest educational attainment) and judo-specific (e.g., current judo level, judo-education level, experience as former athletes, coaching experience, weekly coaching volume, salary from judo-related activities, and specific experience of coaching older judo practitioners) information. Then, the survey encompassed a total 35 items grouped in 6 areas (Table 1) of perceived knowledge (PK)/need for education (NE) in relation to the coaching of older judo practitioners as follows:

Area 1—Aging Process: it focuses on understanding the effects of aging on the body organs and systems of older adults engaged in judo. Coaches in this area may need to be knowledgeable about age- and health-related changes and how to adapt training programs to accommodate older practitioners.

Each item was rated on a 7-pt Likert-type scale, where judo coaches had to specify their perceived PK (1 = little information; 7 = extensive information), and NE (1 = low need; 7 = very high need).

The judo coaches were asked to think about the needs of information to be included in an educational program for judo coaches of an older population of novice and expert judo practitioners and to rate their knowledge and needs of education. Each item was explained in depth by means of the PubMed definition or the respective terminology used in the National Language Medical controlled vocabulary thesaurus (S1). To avoid missing data, the questionnaire's design provided only close and compulsory answers.

To ensure a coaches' representativeness in relation to a variety of cultural and educational backgrounds, the recruitment strategy profited from the professional and structured network of the International Judo Federation Academy (>1,500 licensed coaches from 205 national judo federations). This approach guaranteed diversity in terms of geographical location, coaching experience, and organizational affiliation. A total of 470 respondents (32% response rate) filled in the on-line survey (Table 2), mostly males (85%), with a geographical representation spanning throughout five continents, and showing different ages, and highest educational attainment. Overall respondents were black-belt judoka (i.e., ranging from the 1st to the 8th dan), with a previous athletic experience at elite or competitive levels. The proportion of respondents reporting lower (≤3rd dan) and higher (4th–8th dan) levels of judo grading qualifications was 57% and 43%, respectively. As paid (55%) and unpaid (45%) coaches, participants reported judo-specific education spanning from national (12%) to international (88%) levels. Finally, a high coaching experience (>10 yrs; 68.9%) and a low (>3 h: 24%) or no (none: 46%) weekly coaching commitment with older adults emerged.

Statistical analyses were conducted by means of the SPSS software (26.0; SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). Data were organized in relation to respondents' demographic characteristics, as displayed in Table 2. Furthermore, age, highest academic attainment, judo level, former competition level, judo education level, coaching experience, coaching older judo practitioners, salary for judo coaching were considered as independent variables for inferential statistics. In relation to the level of PK and NE, descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were computed for individual items, for composite scores of items within each area, and overall scores for each PK and NE domains. To provide specific information of the perceived PK and NE, age (e.g., <40 years vs. 40–49 years vs. ≥50 years), highest academic attainment (e.g., ≤EQF 5 vs. EQF 6 vs. ≥EQF 7), judo level (e.g., ≤3rd dan vs. ≥4th dan), former competitive level (e.g., elite vs. non-elite), judo education level (e.g., IJF Level 1 vs. IJF 2 vs. National qualification), coaching experience (e.g., <10 years vs. 10–20 years vs. ≥21 years), coaching older judo practitioners (e.g., Yes vs. No), and salary for judo coaching (e.g., Paid vs. Volunteer) were considered as independent variables. A chi-square test was applied to verify potential between groups' unequal sample sizes in relation to the different independent variables. Then, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was applied to verify the normality of the distribution. The analysis was performed considering the following aspects: (i) effects of the selected independent variables on General PK, General NE, areas' PK, areas' NE, and individual items' PK and NE scores; (ii) correlations between dependent variables to explore the intertwined relationships between perceived PK and NE of both individual items and areas. Being data not normally distributed for all independent variables, a not parametric statistical approach was applied to evaluate differences (p ≤ 0.05) between the groups (e.g., 2-groups independent variables: Mann–Whitney U test; >2 groups independent variables: Kruskal-Wallis One-way ANOVA, and Mann–Whitney U test in case differences were observed in relation to the perceived PK and NE of individual items and areas. Furthermore, the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient with a cutoff value (≥0.7, p ≤ 0.01) was applied to verify relationships between dependent variables. Finally, to show the relationship between the perceived PK and NE of individual items, a bivariate go-zone plot was used.

Results of the analysis in relation to the General, Areas, and individual items PK and NE scores is presented in the Supplementary Table S2. Regarding the General PK and NE scores, differences were observed in relation to judo level, former competition level, coaching experience, and involvement in coaching older judo practitioners. In particular, lower judo level respondents reported higher perceived General NE scores and lower General PK scores with respect to their higher-level counterparts (PK: ≤3rd dan = 4.5 ± 1.0 pt; ≥4th dan = 4.7 ± 0.9 pt; NE: ≤3rd dan = 4.8 ± 1.2 pt; ≥4th dan = 4.6 ± 1.2 pt.). A similar trend emerged for the coaching experience, with expert coaches showing the highest PK values and the lowest NE with respect to less experienced coaches (PK: <10 years = 4.6 ± 0.9 pt; ≥21 years = 4.8 ± 0.9 pt; NE: <10 years = 4.9 ± 1.2 pt; ≥21 years = 4.6 ± 1.2 pt), also in relation to the specific involvement in coaching older judo practitioners (PK: Yes = 4.8 ± 1.0 pt; No = 4.5 ± 1.0 pt; NE: Yes = 4.6 ± 1.3 pt; No = 4.8 ± 1.2 pt). Finally, former elite judoka showed higher PK scores with respect to their non-elite counterparts (PK: elite = 4.7 ± 0.9 pt; non-elite = 4.5 ± 1.0 pt).

Regarding the Areas and Individual items PK and NE scores, data are presented in relation to each independent variable. For age, differences emerged between the highest and oldest subgroups for several variables in relation to NE, with younger judoka presenting lower values with respect to their older counterparts. For the Areas, only Area 1 NE presented significant different scores (<40 years = 4.8 ± 1.6 pt; ≥50 years = 4.4 ± 1.3), which was confirmed by results in relation to the NE of items 1.3, 1.6, 1.7. Furthermore, differences emerged for the NE of items 3.1 (<40 years = 4.7 ± 1.5 pt; ≥50 years = 4.3 ± 1.4 pt), 3.2 (<40 years = 4.8 ± 1.5 pt; ≥50 years = 4.4 ± 1.4 pt), and 5.5 (<40 years = 5.0 ± 1.5 pt; ≥50 years = 4.6 ± 1.4 pt).

Regarding the respondents' education level, differences emerged for the highest academic attainment between ≤EQF 5 and ≥EQF 7 judoka, especially for PK of Areas 2 and 4, and individual items (1.1, 1.6, 2.1, 2.3, 2.4, 4.1, 4.2). In particular, participants with the lowest academic level showed lower (range: 3.9–4.6 pt) levels of PK with respect to their highest-level counterparts (range: 4.3–5.1 pt). Furthermore, a higher NE of ≤EQF 5 judoka emerged for item 1.2 with respect to their ≥ EQF 7 counterparts (≤EQF 5 = 4.3 ± 1.6 pt; ≥EQF 7 = 4.7 ± 1.5 pt). Conversely, the judo-related education level determined a difference only for item 6.7, with coaches holding the highest international qualification perceiving a higher level of PK (5.1 ± 1.3 pt) with respect to those having a different qualification (4.7 ± 1.4 pt).

For the other considered judo-specific independent variables, differences emerged for the participants' judo level in both the PK and NE of main Areas and individual items. For NE, ≤3rd dan judoka reported higher values (range: 4.9–5.0 pt) for Area 5, Area 6, and items 1.6, 5.2, 5.5–5.8, 6.1, and 6.3–6.8 with respect to ≥4th dan ones (range: 4.5–4.8 pt). For PK, lower-level judoka showed lower scores (range: 3.9–4.8 pt) for Areas 2, 5, and 6, and individual items 2.2, 2.4, 5.4, 6.1, 6.4, and 6.6, with respect to their higher-level counterparts (range: 4.2–5.0 pt). Regarding participants' former competitive level, differences emerged only for PK, with former elite judoka presenting higher scores (range: 4.2–5.0 pt) for Areas 2 and 4, and items 1.5, 1.6, 2.3, 2.4, 4.1, 4.2, 5.2, 6.4, 6.5, and 6.8 with respect to non-elite ones (range: 3.9–4.8 pt).

The judo coaching-related experiences determined the highest impact in participants' perceived level of PK and NE. In particular for PK, differences emerged for the Areas 1, 4, 5 and 6, and for the items 1.1–1.7, 4.1., 5.1–5.8, and 6.1–6.8, with a general trend of highly expert coaches displaying the highest scores (≥21 years range: 4.4–5.2 pt) with respect to their less experienced counterparts (<10 years and 10–20 years range: 4.0–5.1 pt, and 3.9–4.8 pt, respectively). Coherently, the opposite picture emerged for the NE domain of Areas 1 and 2, and items 1.1, 1.6, 2.1, 2.4, 5.7, 5.8, and 6.6 (≥21 years range: 4.5–4.7 pt; <10 years range: 4.9–5.2 pt; and 10–20 years range: 4.5–4.9 pt). Furthermore, coaches having experience with older judo practitioners showed higher values of PK for Areas 3, 5, and 6, and items 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 5.1–5.7, and 6.1–6.8 (Yes range; 4.4–5.3 pt; No range: 4.1–4.9 pt), and lower levels of NE for Area 5, and items 5.2–5.4, 6.6, and 6.8 (Yes range; 4.5–4.7 pt; No range: 4.8–5.0 pt) with respect to those having no coaching experience with this special population. Finally, coaches receiving a salary showed higher levels of NE for Area 1 and 2, and items 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, and 2.1–2.4 with respect to their non-paid counterparts (Paid range: 4.7–4.9 pt; Volunteer range: 4.4–4.5 pt), whereas the opposite picture emerged for the PK of item 1.2 (Paid = 4.0 ± 1.5 pt; Volunteer = 4.4 ± 1.5 pt).

Significant correlations between General PK and NE, and main Areas are presented in Table 3. Results reported coefficients ranging from 0.702 (General PK-Area2K) and 0.898 (General NE-Area 5 NE). Regarding PK, General PK was related with all the specific Areas' PK (CC range: 0.702–0.822). A similar picture emerged for NE (CC range: 0.792–0.898). Further relationships were shown also for NE of the Area 4 and 5, with significant coefficients emerging with the same domain of Areas 3.6. The correlations between the PK and NE of individual items are presented in the Supplementary Table S3. Intra-Areas significant correlations emerged between the majority of the items in relation to both PK and NE (PK—CC ranges: Area 1 = 0.722–0.888; Area 2 = 0.713–0.816; Area 3 = 0.732–0.833; Area 4 = 0.796–0.856; Area 5 = 0.701–0.869; Area 6 = 0.703–0.885; NE—CC ranges: Area 1 = 0.709–0.941; Area 2 = 0.729–0.871; Area 3 = 0.740–0.914; Area 4 = 0.901–0.934; Area 5 = 0.749–0.940; Area 6 = 0.834–0.950). For a graphical representation summary of the main effects see also Supplementary Figure S4.

Figure 1 represents the level of NE (y axis) and PK (x axis) of the mean scores of the items, plotted in four quadrants. In general, the coaches reported high PK (4.6 ± 0.3 pt) and NE (4.7 ± 0.1 pt) values. Based on participants' perceptions, the top left quadrant (I) showing high NE and low PK levels, includes five items (5.1–5.3, 5.7, 5.8); the top right quadrant (II) represents high levels of both perceived NE and PK and includes 13 items (2.1, 4.1–4.3, 5.5, 6.1–6.8); the bottom left quadrant (III) shows low levels of both NE and PK, and includes 7 items (1.2–1.4, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 5.4); and the bottom right quadrant (IV) represents high PK and low NE levels, including 8 items (1.1, 1.6, 1.7, 3.2–3.5, 5.6). Two items (1.5 and 2.4) presented the means of both PK and NE. Independently from the level of PK, almost all the items grouped in the high NE zones (quadrant I and II), whereas only four items plotted across the edge of the III quadrant.

The present findings showed that several education-, sport career-, coaching experience-related factors influence the coaches' perceived general PK and NE for training older judo practitioners. The highest perceived general PK and the lower NE of respondents with the highest judo levels (≥4th dan) and longest coaching tenures (≥21 years) indicates that non-formal and informal judo education determine a deep understanding of judo techniques and principles, which could positively impact their ability to work with older adults (3). The importance of coaching education and practice in shaping coaches' expertise cannot be underestimated, as experienced coaches likely acquire valuable insights and skills over time, especially when having direct experience with the needs and challenges of older practitioners (12, 47, 48). However, in reporting a high perceived NE despite their high perceived PK, the coaches call for a sound educational program to train safely and effectively this special population. In sport, learning is a multifaceted process influenced by interactions with the environment, which can occur in formal settings leading to degrees (e.g., academic courses), non-formal organized paths leading to sport-specific qualifications (e.g., sport federation courses), and informal education occurring in an unorganized manner (e.g., personal experiences, peer learning, etc.) (1, 2, 57). Actually, non-formal and informal learning in sport offer several opportunities for personal growth, cooperation, and responsible behaviors (3, 11, 57). Moreover, in connecting people from diverse backgrounds, in promoting social understanding, and in breaking barriers, sport practice can be aligned with the principles of sustainable development (48, 58).

In the present study, the relatively lower NE displayed by older coaches (age ≥50 years) suggests that they might have added to their extensive coaching experience also personal experiences in age-related changes, which enables a more comprehensive understanding of appropriate training strategies addressing the needs of older adults (14). In fact, coaching experience emerged as a prominent factor influencing coaches' perceived PK and NE, since highly experienced coaches (≥21 years) displayed superior PK scores in aging process, physiological and psychological health and teaching and training aspects, highlighting the positive effect of accumulated experience on coaches' expertise (57). In particular, coaches declaring a direct experience with older judo practitioners exhibited higher PK scores in organizational and environmental aspects (e.g., older adults' living conditions, social relations and spaces-related information), highlighting the benefits of informal education to address relevant practicalities related to training (14). Conversely, the lower PK scores shown by coaches with the lowest academic level (≤EQF 5) emphasize the relevant role of formal education in enriching coaches' understanding of judo principles and appropriate training methods for older adults especially at an early stage of a coaching career (3, 40, 41). The significant highest NE scores for paid coaches regarding bio-medical aspects of aging (e.g., musculoskeletal system, healthy eyes and sleep) highlight that professional coaches exhibit high motivations and commitment, potentially influencing their perceived educational needs to be ready for engaging with individuals affected by age-related degenerative processes (47, 59). An apparent paradox could be the highest PK values for eyes health reported by volunteers. Despite special populations require to be trained by specialized personnel, volunteers might have a practical experience deriving from engaging with people with disabilities more often when compared to professional coaches (60).

These findings highlight the potential misconception that a high level of experience equates to comprehensive knowledge, not requiring further education. In fact, in the present study coaching experience plays a significant role in PK with respect to formal education. However, the coaches need for specific knowledge areas would support a valuable formal education. Although this study cannot definitively answer this question, it is important to underline the possibility of an overestimated PK due to extensive experience. Still acknowledging the importance of informal learning and the significance of non-formal education, it is also crucial to warn against the potential pitfalls of relying on experience when formal education may be necessary to acquire specialized knowledge (1, 2, 57).

The investigation of the interrelationships between the coaches' perceived PK and NE in the specific areas of judo for older practitioners allows a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to coaching education for better accommodating the training to the specific requirements of older adults (3). The significant intra-areas correlations between most items of both the PK and NE domains uncover a broader understanding that judo for older practitioners has to be based on a holistic approach to the individuals, with sound training plans and teaching methods taking into account the age, the psycho-physiological status, the fitness level, and the safety of the practitioners (1, 3, 13, 14, 42). Therefore, comprehensive educational programs encompassing both theoretical knowledge and practical exercises (e.g, falling techniques in motion, calisthenics, kata) are needed to optimize the coaches' capability to train older adults (21, 40, 41, 47).

To provide a synthetic visual representation of the coaches' perceptions regarding their knowledge and educational needs in judo training for older adults, the bivariate go zones' plot divides the mean scores of individual items into four quadrants, each reflecting different combinations. Representing a group of factors where coaches perceive high NE but possess relatively low levels of PK, five aspects were included in Quadrant I: (i) Attitudes and motivations of older practitioners to practice judo, which could highly influence the practitioners’ adherence to the coaching program (35); (ii) Activation and relaxation status, which highlights the age-related physiological responses to training needing tailored strategies to optimize performance and well-being (13, 55); (iii) Body image, which could determine relevant concerns with advancing age and affect long-term engagement (32); (iv) Psychological disorders, which can be challenging to be recognized and addressed, although their early identification is crucial for providing appropriate support and intervention (61); (v) Psychological traits and states, which can aid coaches in tailoring approaches to enhance performance and overall mental well-being (61, 62). Therefore, targeted educational interventions and training programs are necessary to address these crucial areas to help judo coaches to be equipped to handle adequately older practitioners (47).

Despite high levels of PK, Quadrant II indicates aspects where coaches perceive high NE, therefore calling for further educational opportunities to deepen their expertise and to enhance their ability to meet effectively the specific demands of older judo practitioners (3). In particular, all the physiological and teaching and training-related aspects and some psychological factors (e.g., empathy, mood) appear in this quadrant, emphasizing the importance of tailored training, inclusivity, effective communication, goal setting, and practice diversification to promote athletes' well-being and progress. In fact, coaching judo for older individuals is a complex task requiring specialized and updated knowledge. Thus, coaches recognize the need of a lifelong education to deal with the specific challenges and nuances of training in light of the continuously evolving sports sciences, with research providing new insights into the training and coaching process. Indeed, since older judo practitioners may have different fitness levels, health conditions, and psychological traits, they necessitate a more individualized coaching approach and tailored training methods, ensuring an effective monitoring and workload management within a friendly and inclusive environment of practice where older individuals could feel welcomed, motivated, and supported throughout their judo journey (3, 40, 41). At the same time, coaches indicate their willingness to explore innovative approaches to improve their athletes' experience.

Quadrant III reports the relative low NE and PK levels in specific areas. Whilst coaches may not consider these factors requiring immediate concerns, continuous monitoring and evaluation of their coaching performance in these areas remain essential to ensure comprehensive support for older judo practitioners (54, 63). Finally, quadrant IV represents aspects where coaches possess high levels of PK, but they perceive relatively low NE. Since coaches already have here a strong understanding and consider their training needs minimal, they are well-equipped to handle the specific demands of older adults and may serve as resources for sharing their expertise with others (64).

In considering that most items fell within the high NE zones (quadrants I and II), it is possible to infer that coaches perceive a substantial need for additional education across multiple areas. This suggests that comprehensive coaching education programs should be designed to target these priority areas to bridge the gap between coaches’ perceived needs and their existing knowledge base (21, 40, 41). Additionally, the existence of items along the edge of quadrant III implies that there are a few aspects that coaches consider as low priority and for which they perceive a limited need for training. Whilst these areas may not be of immediate concerns, continuous assessment and development in all aspects of coaching remain crucial to ensure a well-rounded approach to working with older judo practitioners (63). Coaches' willingness to seek further education suggests their commitment to staying updated with the latest scientific findings and integrating evidence-based practices into their coaching methodologies.

These results present some convergences and discrepancies with literature of senior sport. Across sport disciplines, coaches presented a need of education to tailor training for optimizing sport performance and wellbeing of older athletes, and for providing them with an adequate psychological support (65–67). However, whilst judo coaches prioritize a holistic educational approach in line with the martial arts philosophies, the main focus of endurance sports coaches is on gradual adaptations to training volume and intensity to mitigate age-related injury risks (66), of strength-based sports coaches is on progressive resistance training to preserve muscle mass and strength with advancing age (65), and of team sports coaches is on cognitive agility and strategic adjustments to accommodate the age-related changes in physical capabilities (67). These comparisons enrich our understanding of coaching education for training older practitioners tailored to the unique demands of various sports contexts (9).

To gain a more comprehensive understanding of a tailored educational program for coaching judo for older individuals, the EdJCO research team have combined the survey with other data collection methods (7), namely a systematic literature review (40, 41) and seven national focus groups with experts (41). Carefully designed and complemented with other methods (54), the survey-based methodology provided valuable insights into judo coaches' thoughts and evaluations from a heterogeneous and large sample with the aim to significantly contribute to enhancing awareness among coaches, sports scientists, and sport bodies regarding judo training for older individuals. Moreover, in involving coaches from several countries, it is possible to hypothesize that this study captured different perspectives useful for understanding coaching practices in judo for older adults, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the findings. However, some potential limitations of survey-based methodologies need to be acknowledged. In particular, coaches' responses may be influenced by potential subjective bias always present in the qualitative research (68). Therefore, the lack of opportunity for in depth responses limited the further participants' elaboration of their thoughts. Thus, future research encompassing focus groups with judo coaches is needed to substantiate the present findings and to allow sound generalizations.