Marine tourism is a type of travel that outlines the sea and coastal ecosystems as its main attractions. According to Mark Orams (2002), it includes all activities that occur in marine settings, beaches, and small islands, whether focused on recreation, sports, education, social-cultural tasks, or conservation. In respect to recreation, marine tourism centers on entertainment and enjoyment, namely swimming, snorkeling, diving, and surfing, which provide direct experiences of the sea’s beauty (Orams, 2002).

Conservation marine tourism focused on the protection and preservation of the ecosystems, such as mangrove, coral reef transplantation, and marine wildlife conservation (Wilson and Tisdell, 2003; Apps et al., 2018). Educational marine tourism centered on learning and related activities, namely school trips to conservation areas, observation of marine life, and tourists’ participation in coastal ecosystem studies (Hall, 2001). Meanwhile, socio-cultural marine tourism explored marine values of the local community, including sea festivals, traditional fishing ceremonies, history tours, and seafood-based culinary experiences (Khakzad and Griffith, 2016; Kong, 2024).

Marine tourism is the main tool for developing coastal villages, due to the promotion and preservation of local economic growth and ecosystem health (Tegar and Saut Gurning, 2018; Wang and Zhang, 2019). The transformation process supports the principles of sustainable development, which combines economic, social, and environmental factors (Wang and Zhang, 2019; Booth et al., 2022). Recent studies reported that marine tourism greatly aided sustainable development when managed inclusively, alongside community participation (Tegar and Saut Gurning, 2018; Booth et al., 2022; Rahman et al., 2022).

Based on an economic perspective, marine tourism functioned as an alternative income source for coastal communities, creating jobs and improving local economic diversification (Wang and Zhang, 2019; Srinivasan et al., 2022). Regarding a social perspective, the success of the development process depended on active participation from the local community, because it is believed to enhance quality of life and social cohesion (Rahman et al., 2022). In line with an environmental perspective, marine tourism reportedly improved resource management practices, directly protecting the diverse ecosystems (Apps et al., 2018; Zamzami, 2021; Booth et al., 2022).

The development of marine tourism in coastal villages is part of a comprehensive sustainable advancement strategy. Meanwhile, coastal villages have a significant opportunity to achieve development transformation, when tourism is designed to be community-based, supported by strong social capital, and oriented towards ecological protection. This transformation contributes to improving community welfare, preserving the marine environment, strengthening marine cultural identity, as well as ensuring the sustainability for both current and future generations.

Social capital is essential for achieving the development process (Mura and Tavakoli, 2014; Sunkar et al., 2016; Soulard et al., 2018), playing a strategic role in integrating the three core pillars of sustainable marine tourism. This consisted of economic factors, environmental sustainability, and the socio-cultural well-being of the local community. In this context, social capital refers to the resources held by the local community, namely social solidarity, networks, and commitment, participation, and trust, which formed the basis of the collective action to promote tourism development (Sunkar et al., 2016; Nunkoo, 2017).

The concept of social capital has garnered significant attention from experts in sociology. According to Putnam (2015), it is defined as networks, norms, and trust that enabled coordination and cooperation to achieve shared benefits. This concept is also described as the relationship between individuals, including a social asset that enhances community cohesion, and participation, as well as promoted collaboration among actors during development. Meanwhile, James S. Coleman (1990) described it as a resource for achieving set objectives, namely values, norms, rules, and trust among community members which aided the collaboration process.

This non-material resource, develops from networks of social relationships, norms, values, and levels of trust among individuals and groups, enabling cooperation to reach common goals (Putnam, 2015). Social capital focuses on interpersonal relationships, including the bonds in the community (bonding social capital), connections between different groups (bridging social capital), and relationships with broader institutions (linking social capital) (Cofré-Bravo et al., 2019). The concept promotes coordination and collaboration, fosters social solidarity, as well as incited awareness and collective action in the community to engage in tourism development (Soulard et al., 2018).

The understanding of social capital helps refine the analysis of marine tourism by illustrating how the local community collectively acts in the context of innovative development in isolated villages. Putnam and Coleman’s insights served as the foundation for the analysis, reinforcing the idea that support from various stakeholders, local community participation, and collaboration formed social capital that intensified the development of isolated villages into sustainable marine tourism destinations (Loulanskia and Loulanski, 2011).

The theoretical framework was further enhanced by the adoption of social capital theory supported by Parsons’ (1961) Structural-Functional and Carl von Weizsäcker’s Adaptive Capacity Theories. In addition, these two theories offered a more comprehensive understanding of how coastal communities responded to changes, pressures, and threats from both internal and external sources by using respective existing resources and social capital.

In the framework of structural functional theory, the community is perceived as a social system that can only endure change if it can perform the following four core functions Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, and Latency. The study by Parsons reported that these functions were referred to as AGIL scheme (Schwandt, 2010). Meanwhile, Folke et al. (2003)Adaptive Capacity Theory outlined the importance of social learning, innovation, flexibility, transformational capacity, and collaborative networks in dealing with uncertainty and dynamic change.

Adaptation (A) function described the importance of the social system’s ability to adapt to its environment, which conformed with the adaptive capacity concept in social-ecological systems. Additionally, Goal Attainment (G) function is related to the capacity of the social system to identify shared objectives and organize resources for sustainable achievement. Integration (I) function stressed the importance of maintaining social cohesion, enabling the system to remain resilient in the face of change. This supported the assumptions of adaptive capacity theory, which described social integration as a significant factor in a community’s ability to resolve conflicts and manage risks (Cinner et al., 2018). Meanwhile, Latency/Pattern Maintenance (L) function corresponded with the idea of adaptive capacity, underscoring the significance of preserving cultural values, local knowledge, and community identity as long-term adaptive resources.

In the context of tourism development in coastal areas, local knowledge of marine cycles, fishing zones, traditional conservation practices, and related customs was part of the cultural resilience. This enabled the adaptation of the community to changes brought about by marine tourism (Pretty and Ward, 2001; Hwang and Stewart, 2017). The combination of social capital, structural-functional, and adaptive capacity theories enhanced the analysis of the results. It also offered new theoretical and practical insights, such as the success of marine tourism village development depended on economic or infrastructural factors. The process included the social system’s ability to adapt, work toward shared goals, maintain cohesion, and protect cultural values when changes occurred due to marine tourism growth. Additionally, social capital formed the foundation connecting the numerous functions, making it a crucial element in transforming isolated villages into a sustainable marine tourism community (Henocque, 2013).

Mandeh KWBT has been a leading marine tourism destination in West Sumatra since 2016. The area was visited by approximately 2 million tourists annually, leading to the rapid development (BPS Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, 2025). Before 2015, the villages in this tourist area were isolated and not accessible by land. Road access was quite limited, with innumerable underdeveloped infrastructure, with the community’s economic activities depending on traditional fisheries and seafood (Fatimah and Ramadhan, 2019). These conditions made the area less known, despite the beautiful natural potential, specifically the cluster of islands, bays, and rich, diverse marine biodiversity.

Mandeh KWBT, consisted of 3 nagari, totaling 7 villages. However, an isolated community that had become the center for tourism development was Mandeh Village. Prior to 2016, the fishing village, accommodated 10,867 residents, that heavily depended on marine and forest products for its livelihood (BPS Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, 2025). The village was inaccessible by land, and the only access was by sea, through fishing boats. This situation caused the local residents to face difficulty accessing the facilities and services necessary for respective livelihoods, including education and healthcare. Subsequently, the village was considered underdeveloped, with low welfare levels.

The transformation of the village started in 2019 when the road was constructed and launched. This supported the central and regional government’s policy of designating the region as a National Strategic Tourism Area (KSPN). The main development milestone was the completion of a 41.08-mile access road linking various parts of Padang City and Pesisir Selatan Regency. The construction process began in 2016–2017 by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing (PUPR) and was finished in 2018 (Biro Komunikasi Publik Kementrian PUPR, 2019; Figure 1).

The opening of this land route marked the start of the transformation process. Mandeh area was no longer isolated, as it was visited by millions of people. The development continued with ongoing innovations. The progress was achieved by utilizing local resources and engaging the community. In Mandeh, the local community played a major role in tourism development. However, in other areas, external investors built facilities leading to the marginalization of the local community.

The participation of the local community in tourism development was evident in various forms of creativity including the establishment of related facilities, using the local nature and culture as the main attractions. This led to the building of diverse tourism facilities independently, under the direction and guidance of the local government, who actively participated in the construction process. Fishing boats were renovated into tourist boats, with the community taking on roles as boat operators and tour guides to cater to tourists’ needs. Furthermore, roughly 100 fishing boats in Mandeh were converted for tourism purposes (Figure 2).

Mandeh community offered accommodation services by transforming respective homes into homestays for visiting tourists at relatively affordable prices, in addition to providing tourist transportation (Figure 3). The community also participated in the sale of local creative economy products, including handicrafts made from seafood, regional culinary specialties (such as processed fish and traditional foods), and Mandeh-themed souvenirs, to improve family income.

During holiday season and weekends, tourism sector enabled residents to earn roughly IDR 2,000,000 per day. This shift had a significant positive impact on the economic life, which previously depended solely on uncertain marine resources. Tourism brought new hope to Mandeh community, allowing the evolution from an isolated group reliant on fishing and forest yields. The people became tourism fishermen, offering related services while still preserving respective identity as traditional fishermen.

The transformation in Mandeh area was caused by the internal capacities of the local community. A typical example was the ability to adapt to environmental changes. In this context, adaptation is the ability to survive in difficult conditions, as well as respond to alteration in creative and innovative ways, enabling change to become an opportunity for growth.

Mandeh fishing community, which had lived in isolation for decades, trained the people to continuously learn and adapt to unpredictable natural situations, including changing weather, seasonal fishing, and fluctuating sea conditions. This lengthy experience of adapting to nature became a crucial asset when faced with major changes resulting from the conversion of residential area into tourist destination. The people possessed a high degree of adaptive capacity, which enabled the transformation of challenges posed by the evolution into opportunities for continued survival. The opportunities included the shift in livelihoods from traditional fishing to the provision of tourism services.

The transformation from traditional fishermen to marine tourism operators was not an easy process and required a high degree of adaptability from the local community. This led to the learning of new skills that were completely different from the previous lives, such as serving tourists, communicating with people from diverse backgrounds, managing small businesses, and using digital technology for promotion. However, the adaptation process did not alter the traditional identity and values as fishermen, rather it integrated new knowledge with old values, resulting in a unique tourism form. ZL fisherman who also became tourist boat operator, shared how his friends adapted to the changes that occurred:

Informants’ accounts showed an interesting adaptation process where communities failed to select between maintaining the new professions, but blended the two. The ability to work as a fisherman in the morning and operate boats in the afternoon or evening showed flexibility in managing time and economic activities. This played an important role in preserving the traditional identity and skills, which had been passed down through generations, while earning extra income from the more lucrative tourism sector. The adaptation occurred in Mandeh community, as the people learned to understand and meet the varying needs of tourists. According to YL, who managed a homestay:

The adaptability of the informants showed the ability to learn new skills. This implied that Mandeh community was open and eager to turn challenges into opportunities to improve respective capabilities. The adaptability was also clear when faced with environmental issues caused by the growing number of tourists. FR, an active member of an environmental awareness group, recounted:

Based on the explanation of the informant, the community exhibited the ability to respond to evolving problems, and to actively find long-term solutions. Mandeh community’s ability to integrate local knowledge with new tourism needs depicted the characteristics of resilience-based adaptation. This included adaptation that was both reactive and transformational. Moreover, the transformation reflected the dynamics of the social-ecological system, where interactions among humans, the environment, and local institutions unfolded in a structured manner (Folke et al., 2010; Olsson et al., 2014).

In this context, Holling and Gunderson (2002) reported that a resilient social-ecological system could maintain its function while transforming into new, more beneficial structures and practices. This adaptation form was described as a process where the community maintained old practices and also created new, more productive alongside sustainable social, economic, and ecological configurations (Pelling and Manuel-Navarrete, 2011). The transformation was strengthened by adaptive capacity, supported by social capital, community collaboration, and local leadership, which enabled the community to organize collective change (Green, 2005; Bennett et al., 2016).

Family values and solidarity were the main social capital that drove the transformation of isolated coastal villages in Mandeh area into sustainable marine tourism destinations. The fishing community had strong social bonds, formed through decades of living together in isolation. In addition, the isolation strengthened the community’s internal solidarity, as its survival depended heavily on mutual cooperation and support. These values were also applied in tourism development, as proven by the statement of HY. The homestay manager in Mandeh stated that:

The solidarity of Mandeh community was further reflected in the flexible yet well-organized role-sharing system. When large numbers of tourists arrived, the people spontaneously divided up the numerous tasks. Some acted as tour guides, others arranged sea transportation, provided food and drinks, as well as organized accommodations. The system operated smoothly because it was based on years of trust and mutual respect.

This division of roles not only enhances the efficiency of tourism services but also functions as a social mechanism to prevent unhealthy competition among local actors. By allocating tasks through mutual agreement and trust, the potential for conflict related to competition for guests, access to resources, and the distribution of economic benefits is minimized. The principle of shared livelihoods and unwritten rules grounded in family-based values operate as instruments of informal social control. These norms constrain individualistic behavior that could otherwise generate social jealousy, inequality, and latent conflict. Accordingly, bonding social capital not only strengthens social cohesion but also serves as a community-based conflict management mechanism, whereby social pressure and moral commitment to the group encourage compliance with collective agreements.

In the context of tourism infrastructure development, collective participation in the form of labor, material contributions, and financial support further reduces the potential for conflict related to costs and responsibilities. This system of voluntary contributions and shared responsibility strengthens a sense of collective ownership of tourism facilities, thereby minimizing unilateral claims and reducing the likelihood of intergroup conflict. AR, a local community leader, added:

This value of solidarity was clearly depicted in how collective development issues that came up alongside the growth of tourism industry, were tackled. Tourism infrastructure that needed to be repaired or expanded to support tourists’ comfort, were fixed without waiting for government help. This attitude reflected the independence and confidence of the community in managing changes in the immediate environment. For example, when the dock for tourist boats needed repairs to make it safer and more comfortable for tourists, the entire community contributed both in the form of physical labor, providing building materials namely wood and stone, as well as funds according to each family’s economic capacity. This contribution system was not based on coercion rather on the understanding that tourism infrastructure would benefit the entire community. HD, a former fisherman who worked as tour guide, proudly explained the community’s shared support system.

The informant’s explanation above shows that the kinship system is the main foundation for tourism development. The principle of sharing sustenance with fellow boat owners, because of the brotherhood bond is a source of social cohesion created by kinship, shared residence, and destiny. Moreover, shared emotional bonds could unite and bound unwritten commitments. The emotional bond from kinship principles, served as bonding social capital including the foundation for collective awareness and action in tourism development (Hwang and Stewart, 2017; Trinh, 2021). This result was in line with the study by Adger (2003) that shared emotional bonds constituted crucial social capital responsible for uniting communities, and providing a basis for adapting to crisis situations. In this context, bonding social capital mobilized effective collective action in addressing systemic disruptions, such as tourism pressures in coastal areas (Partelow, 2021).

Trust is another form of social capital perceived as a driving factor in the success of tourism development in Mandeh. This attribute is the main foundation for building cooperation between various stakeholders (Raymond, 2006; Soulard et al., 2018). In the framework of social capital theory proposed by Putnam, Coleman, and Fukuyama, it is a fundamental element that enabled the effective collaboration of social actors to achieve common objectives (Coleman, 1990; Dhesi, 2000; Sunkar et al., 2016).

In tourism development, trust did not evolve spontaneously rather it was deeply rooted in local cultural values that had long been part of the social life of the coastal community. This attribute arose from daily social relationships and traditional values that taught warm welcome to guests, trust in others, hospitality, and mutual assistance. The values evolved from the deep understanding of the village’s name, Mandeh, a local Minangkabau word meaning Mother. The name holds a deep philosophical meaning that underlies the behavior of the community. Additionally, because the term means Mother, visiting Mandeh Village implies returning to Mother’s house.

The understanding of the village’s name underpins the local community’s approach to tourists. Based on this perspective, tourists to Mandeh are considered as brothers and sisters who should be treated properly, in a similar manner an individual would be treated at the mother’s house, where comfort, warmth, and trust, are experienced. The value fostered strong trust, which strengthened cooperation in terms of developing tourism that provided tourists with comfort. RL, a local resident, explained how trust was the foundation of running tourism business in Mandeh:

Trust in Mandeh community was reflected in the management of homestays and tourist accommodations. Many homeowners rented respective homes as homestays to tourists without a formal booking system or strict deposit requirements. Trust system in Mandeh community also played a crucial role in the development of tourism infrastructure. According to YF, head of tourism awareness group in one of nagari areas in Mandeh:

The informant’s statement showed that trust was a fundamental aspect of collective development in Mandeh. In Mandeh community, this attribute extended to relationships with outsiders, including tourists and business people. ED, tour guide, explains how trust was built with tourists:

The explanation of informants proved that trust functioned internally in the community and served as invaluable social capital in building the reputation of tourist destination. This abstract value was put into practice across various aspects of life, including tourism development. In this context, trust has unique characteristics distinguished from other societies, due to the interpersonal nature. It evolved from a philosophy of life passed down through generations. Trust born from Mandeh community’s philosophy of life strengthens internal cohesion, and also functions as bridging social capital, expanding community relationships with actors beyond kinship networks (Raymond, 2006; Soulard et al., 2018).

The bridging of social capital enabled the community to collaborate with various parties, expanding access to economic opportunities, innovation, and resources needed for sustainable tourism development (Henocque, 2013; Nunkoo, 2017). This was consistent with the theory proposed by Robert Putnam, that bridging social capital connected different groups, creating information exchange and collaboration across social boundaries (Putnam, 2015). Considering tourism context, relationships built through trust enhanced destination credibility, and created authentic tourism experiences, alongside factors proven to strengthen tourist loyalty and destination reputation (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2011). Bridging social capital facilitated more inclusive collective agency, which enabled the community to manage external pressures while effectively exploiting new economic opportunities (McGehee et al., 2010).

Tourism development in Mandeh was driven by the use of social networks, which acted as linking social capital, forming the basis for collaboration with various parties. This included Mandeh migrants and external groups, namely the government, universities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), environmental conservation, and diving communities. The strength of the social networks allowed for the formation of more open, mutually supportive interaction patterns oriented toward sustainable tourism development (Henocque, 2013).

Community-government relations was developed through inclusive networking patterns. The government did not operate top-down rather actively engaged community leaders, ninik mamak (village heads), youth, and representatives of nagari in various tourism development planning and implementation processes. This process strengthened social connectivity between formal structures and the local community, making residents feel respective positions and voices were heard. SY, a community leader who also actively served as a liaison between the local community and government, explained how social networks functioned in tourism development:

The information above described how the government served as a support system for tourism development including the local community. In addition, strong social networks were also being built through collaborations with universities, NGOs, and the environmental conservation community. These relationships were develop through coaching activities that increased capacity as tourism service providers and a commitment to marine resource sustainability. The inter-organizational network, enabled Mandeh community to access mentoring, new knowledge, and various empowerment programs. This was outlined by the statement of RN, a member of tourism awareness group, who stated that:

The information showed that social networks functioned as communication channels and collaborative mechanisms that generated tangible benefits. These included broader flow of information, opportunities for collaboration, a clear distribution of roles, collective commitment to developing tourism and preserving the area.

In Mandeh context, these social networks were not solely driven by external assistance. The power of migrants (Mandeh community who live outside the area) played a strategic role as a bridge between the local community and external networks. These individuals occupied the intersection of nagari cultural identity and modern social networks in large cities. Additionally, the migrants were viewed as bringing positive interests and free from exploitative motives, because of the emotional attachment to respective hometowns.

Migrants often acted as bridges between the community and investors, academics, the media, including business networks. The extensive connections, enabled the community gain access to various opportunities, such as digital marketing, tourism package collaborations, promotional support, and even capital assistance for homestay managers and local culinary businesses. Migrant networks also served as a mediator when differing interests arose between the community and investors or the government. These people were perceived as understanding both sides resulting in the ability to reduce potential conflict. The role of migrants in tourism development was evident in the statement of DS, secretary of tourism awareness group in one of the nagari, who recounted the diverse experiences in building tourism facilities:

The importance of the role played by migrants in tourism development was also described by RD:

The informants’ statements outlined the important role of migrants in bridging relationships between the local community and external parties. Migrants provided linking social capital, thereby fostering collaboration with stakeholders outside the village. This network expanded community access to information and opportunities as well as strengthened collaborative mechanisms to maintain regional sustainability, enhance local competencies, and expand Mandeh’s connectivity in the broader tourism network.

The linking of social capital expanded access to resources and economic opportunities. This enhanced the community’s adaptive capacity to maintain environmental sustainability (Raymond, 2006; Sunkar et al., 2016), reduce stressors caused by crises (King et al., 2021), and improve community capabilities for developing businesses (Dhesi, 2000; Finkel, 2010). Moreover, vertical social networks were a crucial foundation for the resilience and governance of socio-ecological systems (Adger, 2003).