The stigma experienced by disabled people in Makassar is based on data processed from 400 respondents, with the assumption that all samples have observed and interacted with disabled people across different age groups, from children to adults and the elderly. The data is categorized by gender, age group, and type of interaction, examining key stigma-related terms such as harassment stigma, insult stigma, and negative labeling of disabled people.

This study focuses on individuals who interact with disabled people. The decision to focus on individuals who interact with disabled people, rather than the disabled themselves, was made to capture societal perspectives and behaviors that contribute to stigma. By studying those who interact with disabled people, such as family members, colleagues, or service providers, we can gain insight into how societal attitudes and biases are manifested. These individuals often play a role in shaping the environment and experiences that disabled people encounter daily, whether through conscious or unconscious behavior. Their perspectives can reveal how stigma is perpetuated or challenged in various social settings, as well as how Islamic law responds to such situations.

Moreover, studying the perspectives of non-disabled individuals helps highlight the social barriers—such as discrimination, exclusion, or misinformation—that disabled people face, which may not always be apparent when focusing solely on the reports of disabled people themselves. This external viewpoint is crucial for understanding the systemic and cultural sources of stigma affecting disabled people. Therefore, the responses from those who interact with disabled people provide valuable insights into the broader social dynamics that contribute to the stigma experienced by disabled people.

The questionnaire distributed by the researchers is categorized from several aspects, the first of which is gender. Based on the Figure 3, the majority of respondents who were willing to complete the questionnaire were male, numbering 224, while 176 were female.

The next aspect is age group. According to basic health research data, the age groups of disabled people can be categorized into three categories: children with disabilities, adults with disabilities, and elderly disabled people.

Figure 4 shows that respondents interacted most frequently with adults with disabilities, aged between 18 and 60 years (189 individuals), followed by children with disabilities (136 individuals). The least interaction was with elderly disabled individuals, aged 60 years and above (44 individuals), while 31 respondents did not provide an answer. This data provides researchers with the opportunity to understand the interaction process between society and disabled people who are in their productive years, focusing on their ability to work and obtain rights in public spaces.

The final aspect is the form of interaction. The type of interaction between respondents and disabled people is one of the factors measured by the researchers to understand the nature of these interactions.

Based on Figure 5, it is evident that most respondents only observed the condition of disabled people (222 individuals), although the number of respondents who directly interacted with disabled people is also significant (157 individuals), with 21 respondents not providing an answer. This finding serves as an initial argument for the high levels of stigma against disabled people in Makassar, as one of the indicators of stigma is the presence of mere perception.

Stigma-related expressions such as harassment, insults, and negative labeling directed at disabled people. Harassment stigma can manifest against disabled people in the form of physical and psychological abuse, both verbal and non-verbal. The findings of this study show that respondents perceive disabled people as being physically different from themselves.

The perception of respondents in Table 1, who consider themselves physically different from disabled people, is categorized as very high. The strong perception among respondents that they are physically different from disabled people can lead to stigma, which may result in harassment. The physical differences and limitations experienced by disabled people can create opportunities for those who feel they can exploit these conditions.

The societal stigma regarding the burdensome nature of disabled people due to their condition is relatively high, as shown in Table 2. This indicates that there is a stigma suggesting that the physical form of disabled people is perceived negatively, which can lead to insults and even harassment.

The high level of societal stigma toward disabled people, which can lead to harassment, becomes evident when researchers explore the various forms of harassment, such as physical abuse.

Although Table 3 shows a significant number of respondents who disagree with the vulnerability of disabled people to being touched, the number of respondents who agree with this view is also considerable. This contributes to the high stigma of harassment against disabled people and suggests that the likelihood of harassment occurring in Makassar is relatively high. Additionally, respondents also believe that disabled people are at risk of being subjected to inappropriate behavior by those around them.

According to respondents in Table 4, disabled people have a high likelihood of being subjected to inappropriate behavior due to the strong stigma against them. This clearly demonstrates the significant stigma directed toward disabled people, particularly in terms of harassment, with respondents believing that the likelihood of sexual harassment against disabled people is much higher.

However, the high stigma regarding the likelihood of harassment contrasts with the responses given when researchers asked respondents to report incidents of harassment they had personally witnessed.

Respondents to the question reflected in Table 5 tend to report that the incidence of sexual harassment they have personally witnessed involving disabled people is relatively low. However, despite the low numbers, there is still a significant portion of respondents who agree with this statement.

Based on the data presented, it is evident that societal stigma in Makassar toward disabled people remains relatively high, particularly in terms of harassment. As a result, disabled people are always at risk of experiencing physical, psychological, verbal, and non-verbal harassment.

Therefore, there is a need for solutions that primarily focus on the wellbeing of disabled people, including the following: First, sexual education specifically for disabled people. Although it may be considered taboo, it is necessary for disabled people to understand which parts of their bodies can and cannot be touched by others, as well as to receive education on reproductive health supported by scientific data. Second, raising awareness about the prevention of sexual violence against disabled people. They should be taught about the dangers and consequences of harassment, particularly toward disabled people. Third, intervention by paying attention to events, perceiving situations that require immediate help, being responsible for addressing incidents, knowing how to act and report, so that disabled people should not remain silent in the face of harassment. They must actively participate if they suspect that harassment is about to occur.

Insult is a process, method, or act of degrading or defaming someone (Daly, 2018). It can also be understood as a criminal act and defamation, which can take various forms, including (a) oral defamation/verbal slander; (b) written defamation/libel; (c) slander; (d) minor insult; (e) false accusation; (f) creating false suspicion; (g) insult regarding a deceased person. The causes of insult generally stem from ignorance about the object of the insult, as well as emotional factors that lead to the victim being insulted.

The results of the questionnaire in Table 6 show that the majority of respondents agree that disabled people were found to be highly vulnerable to being insulted. This, of course, had a significant impact on the potential threat to their safety in public places, as it can lead to discomfort and even discrimination against them.

This is evident from an incident that occurred in Makassar, where a 13-year-old student with dwarfism was frequently bullied by classmates over the past month. However, the situation only came to public attention after a video of the student's head being kicked went viral, causing severe trauma to the student and their family. This reality underscores that insults against disabled people in Makassar are both real and prevalent.

In a different dimension of questioning, the findings related to insults directly witnessed by respondents are relatively low. Respondents indicated that they have never insulted disabled people or their families.

The findings from respondents in Table 7 provided an opportunity to prevent the stigma of insults against disabled people through welfare-based prevention measures. One such prevention strategy can be the enhancement of protection for disabled people from individuals who hold the stigma that they are vulnerable to insults.

From the perspective of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, preventing insults against disabled people must be based on fundamental principles that protect human dignity and honor. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, which focuses on the protection of five basic things—religion, life, intellect, lineage, and property—provides a strong framework for understanding and preventing such insults. Insulting disabled people is a violation of the principles of protecting life and human dignity. In Islam, every individual, regardless of their physical or mental condition, possesses dignity that must be respected. Overall, the perspective of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah demands a holistic approach to preventing insults against disabled people, focusing on education, law, inclusion, empowerment, and social support, to ensure that all individuals can live with the dignity and respect they deserve.

The low results reflected in Table 8 provide an opportunity to offer education aimed at reducing the high stigma that disabled people are prone to insults, as respondents do not feel disgusted by the condition of disabled people.

The greatest support that can help disabled people avoid insults is the presence of family. Research conducted by Liu Fengbo has shown that the presence of family provides social support and happiness to disabled people, and the family's role can even alleviate various social problems, as the family can act as a mediator in case of issues (Fengbo et al., 2024). However, in the findings gathered by the researchers, many respondents believe that disabled people receive insufficient attention from their families.

Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of treating all individuals with respect and compassion, in accordance with the teaching that humans are creations of Allah who must be valued and protected. Additionally, the view that disabled people are repulsive can harm their mental and emotional wellbeing. This contradicts the principles of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, which seek to protect intellect and mental health. Discriminatory and demeaning treatment can cause psychological trauma and worsen the mental health conditions of disabled people. Islam teaches the importance of creating a loving and supportive environment for all family members, including those with disabilities. From the perspective of protecting lineage and family, negative views toward disabled people can undermine family harmony and unity. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of maintaining family honor and stability. Discrimination against family members with disabilities can lead to tension and disharmony within the family, which goes against Islam's goal of creating a loving and supportive family environment. Degrading views also conflict with the principles of justice and social welfare in Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah. Social justice in Islam includes fair and inclusive treatment for all individuals, including disabled people, and rejects all forms of discrimination. Considering disabled people as repulsive is a form of injustice that disregards their rights to be accepted and treated equally in society.

Table 9 illustrates the high level of respondent agreement regarding the lack of family attention toward disabled people. According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, every child has the right to survival, protection, development, and participation. The lack of family attention to disabled people significantly increases the likelihood of escalating stigma, particularly leading to harassment. Therefore, enhancing the role of the family should be prioritized to ensure greater attention is given to children with disabilities.

The data in Table 10 indicates that there is a belief that families should not need to hide the fact that they have a child with a disability. However, in reality, Dante Rigmalia (Chairperson of the National Disability Commission) states that the stigma against children with disabilities remains very strong. This is evident from the widespread bullying and arbitrary rejection by society, and even by families. This is largely due to the lack of knowledge among families and parents about children with disabilities, leading to children with disabilities being abandoned by their families and sent to social institutions.

In Indonesia, the perception that disability is a family disgrace is deeply rooted in cultural, social, and beliefs (Kiling et al., 2019; Subu et al., 2023). Many communities associate disability with negative connotations (Kusumastuti et al., 2014), viewing it as a result of past misdeeds or divine punishment. This belief is reinforced by cultural norms that emphasize familial reputation and social status, particularly in rural areas where societal acceptance is heavily influenced by collective identity. As a result, families with disabled members may experience social exclusion, as the presence of disability is often seen as a failure to conform to societal expectations of health, productivity, and normalcy.

In some cases, misinterpretations of religious teachings lead to the belief that disability is a trial or test from God, further stigmatizing the individual and the family. The lack of public awareness and education about disability exacerbates this stigma, as families may internalize these beliefs, feeling shame or guilt for having a disabled family member.

This perception is further perpetuated by the limited visibility of disabled individuals in public spaces, as families may choose to hide or isolate disabled members to avoid judgment or gossip. Even more tragically, some families resort to imprisoning disabled members in inhumane ways, a practice known as Pasung (Baklien et al., 2023). The absence of adequate government support and the scarcity of accessible public services contribute to this marginalization, reinforcing the idea that disability is a private issue rather than a societal one.

Considering disabled people as a disgrace contradicts the principles of protecting human life and dignity. Islam teaches that every individual, regardless of their physical or mental condition, possesses dignity that must be respected. Viewing disabled people as a disgrace devalues their dignity and fails to recognize the human values instilled in Islamic teachings. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of treating all individuals with respect and compassion, in line with the belief that humans are creations of Allah who must be honored and protected.

Additionally, the stigma of being considered a disgrace can harm the mental and emotional wellbeing of disabled people. This is contrary to the principles of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, which seek to protect intellect and mental health. Any form of discrimination or exclusion can cause psychological trauma and worsen their mental health conditions. Islam teaches the importance of mutual support and providing a loving and understanding environment for all family members, including those with disabilities.

From the perspective of protecting lineage and family, considering disabled people as a disgrace can undermine family harmony and unity. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of maintaining family honor and stability. Discrimination against family members with disabilities can lead to tension and disharmony within the family, which goes against Islam's goal of creating a loving and supportive family environment.

Labeling (stereotyping) is the generalization of individuals within a group without sufficient information, while ignoring the characteristics of the individuals in that group (Gershman and Cikara, 2023). Stereotypes are formed through various means, such as personal experiences, relevant experiences of others, and media influence. Stereotypes about disabled people develop within social categories and can be clearly categorized because disability is perceived as something unchangeable, like ethnicity, race, or sex (Wicaksono et al., 2021). Respondents believed that disabled people still receive negative stereotypes from society.

The high stigma against disabled people, coupled with negative stereotypes as shown in Table 11, positions disabilities as a disease. Even more concerning, disabled people are often denied the inclusive rights to participate in various aspects of life, particularly those related to social issues. In reality, disabled people are like anyone else—sometimes healthy and sometimes ill. This negative labeling also occurs in Makassar.

Using negative labels against disabled people can degrade their dignity and disregard the human values emphasized in Islamic teachings. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah demands that all individuals be treated with justice and compassion, in accordance with the belief that humans are creations of Allah who must be respected. Furthermore, negative views toward disabled people can harm their mental and emotional wellbeing. This contradicts the principles of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, which aim to protect intellect and mental health. Discriminatory treatment or exclusion can lead to psychological trauma and worsen their health conditions. Islam teaches the importance of creating a compassionate and supportive environment for all members of society, including disabled people.

From the perspective of family and lineage protection, negative views toward disabled people can undermine family harmony and unity. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of maintaining family honor and stability. Discrimination against family members with disabilities can create tension and disharmony within family relationships, which contradicts Islam's goal of fostering a loving and supportive family environment. Moreover, negative views toward disabled people can violate the principles of justice and social welfare. Social justice in Islam involves fair and inclusive treatment of all individuals, regardless of their physical or mental condition. Using negative labels against disabled people is a form of injustice that disregards their rights to be accepted and treated equally in society.

In matters related to societal stigma regarding employment opportunities, respondents view disabled people differently. The high societal stigma regarding the lack of employment opportunities for disabled people, as shown in Table 12, further reinforces negative labeling against them. In reality, disabled people have the same and equal rights to access employment in order to meet their livelihood needs. The state is obligated to protect, fulfill, and enforce the rights applicable to all citizens, regardless of their status, including disabilities. Several strategies that the government can implement to uphold the rights of disabled people in relation to employment include providing special treatment for them, especially in terms of inclusive rights. However, in practice, it remains challenging to enforce rules on employing disabled people due to difficulties in finding suitable job materials that meet employers' demands, inconsistent implementation of the 1% quota for disabled people, low awareness of the importance of employing disabled people, and the lack of motivation among disabled people to seek employment.

The view that disabled people are unfit to work can also undermine the human values in Islam. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of respecting and protecting the dignity of every individual. Considering them unfit to work diminishes their dignity and hinders their efforts to achieve economic and social independence. From the perspective of general welfare and social prosperity, Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah highlights the importance of building an inclusive and just society. Providing equal employment opportunities to all individuals, including disabled people, is part of the effort to achieve the social balance and wellbeing desired in Islam. This aligns with the principle of social justice, which emphasizes fair treatment and equality, advocating for equal rights for all members of society.

Respondents show positive support for the need to enhance individual development and acceptance within the social environment, a shown in Table 13. Special treatment for disabled people is guaranteed under Article 28H paragraph (2) of the 1945 Constitution, which affirms that everyone has the right to receive assistance and special treatment to obtain equal opportunities and benefits in order to achieve equality and justice. Therefore, to reduce the high stigma surrounding employment opportunities for disabled people, it is necessary to seek solutions based on public welfare.

Disabled people have the right to special protection because Islam teaches that every individual, regardless of their physical or mental condition, possesses dignity that must be respected and protected.

This view is reflected in the principles of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah, which outline the primary objectives of Islamic law to preserve human life and society in a just and balanced manner. First and foremost, special protection for disabled people is necessary to safeguard their dignity and wellbeing. Islam individual is created by Allah with a specific purpose and uniqueness. Ignoring or sidelining their needs means failing to respect the human values taught in Islamic teachings. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah demands that every individual, including disabled people, be treated with compassion and understanding.

Additionally, special protection is necessary to ensure that disabled people have equal access to the services and opportunities they need. This includes access to education, healthcare, transportation, employment, and various other social activities. Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of social justice and inclusion, where all individuals have the same rights to participate actively in society. From the perspective of family and lineage protection, Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah places significant responsibility on the family to protect its vulnerable members, including disabled people. This includes providing care, support, and an environment that enables them to develop to their fullest potential. A well-functioning family, according to Islamic teachings, is one that nurtures the harmony and wellbeing of all its members, regardless of their condition. More broadly, special protection for disabled people reflects Islam's commitment to justice and humanity. Islam teaches that every individual should be treated fairly and equally in all matters, without discrimination based on status or physical condition. Providing special protection for disabled people is an integral part of creating an inclusive and just society, in line with Islam's vision of general welfare and social harmony.

In terms of assumptions regarding access to education, respondents believe that disabled people should have the same opportunities to attend school. Respondents in Table 14 believe that disabled people have the right to an education, which aligns with the availability of Special Schools in Makassar, although the total number is still relatively small-−2 State Special Schools and 20 Private Special Schools. Therefore, parents should not neglect the educational rights that children with disabilities are entitled to receive.

Although the desire for education is relatively high, disabled people still need a lot of encouragement to pursue education. According to the 2018 Rikesda data, 22% of disabled people were of school age, but as of that time, only 30.7% had completed secondary education. The impact of inadequate educational programs for disabled people is a reduced opportunity to obtain suitable employment, which may contribute to the increase in societal stigma.

Islam teaches that every individual, including disabled people, has the same right to develop their potential through education. Education is not only seen as a means to acquire knowledge but also as a way to build individual dignity and enable them to contribute meaningfully to society. In this context, Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of eliminating all forms of discrimination and providing equal access to education for everyone. Islam encourages comprehensive social inclusion. Providing adequate education to disabled people helps create a more just society. Those who receive a good education have a greater opportunity to achieve economic independence, improve their quality of life, and contribute to the overall development of society. In this regard, Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah highlights that education is a long-term investment in the prosperity and wellbeing of humanity.

Society believes that disabled people have the right to access education, as shown in Table 15. However, this view contradicts their perception of employment opportunities for disabled people. As previously explained, disabled people face significant challenges in accessing employment due to a variety of factors.

Respondents also believe that disabled people still need assistance in decision-making, as shown in Table 16. This stigma leads to the labeling of disabled people as dependent and unable to make decisions on their own, as professionals and parents often fear that they will fail. This perception also contributes to the lack of skill development among disabled people.

Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah demands that every individual, including disabled people, have equal access to the decision-making processes that affect their lives. This includes their right to be involved in decisions related to health, finances, education, and other important aspects of daily life. In this context, society is encouraged to provide a supportive environment where disabled people can actively participate in the decision-making processes that impact them directly.

In matters of marriage, disabled people still face significant challenges in Makassar. Based on the data in Table 17, respondents continue to hold the stigma of not marrying disabled people.

The high societal stigma against marrying disabled people indicates a strong negative label attached to them, as they are perceived as being unprepared to manage a household. However, even though respondents may not want to marry disabled people, they still believe that disabled people have the right to marry and become heads of families.

Based on the data in Table 17, respondents are unwilling to consider disabled people as their life partners. However, research shows that living together, including marriage between persons with and without disabilities, can remain long-lasting and harmonious with effective relationship maintenance strategies.

Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah emphasizes the importance of not judging a person's ability to marry based on their disability, as marriage is a fundamental human right regardless of any disabilities they may have (Bakry, 2019). Instead, the focus should be on their ability to fulfill the responsibilities as a spouse and family member. Treating disabled people fairly and respecting their rights to lead a dignified family life is an implementation of Islamic values that advocate for justice, equality, and compassion in social relationships.

Although negative labeling stigmas remain relatively high, respondents are willing to accept disabled people as friends, as shown in Table 18.

After discussing the three main points of protecting disabled people against stigma, particularly in terms of harassment, insults, and negative labeling related to their disability, it is clear that the level of stigma in Makassar remains high. Therefore, the findings suggest various strategic steps to reduce stigma against disabled people in Makassar. Key points for reducing this stigma include the importance of socialization and education for the public about human rights based on tangible benefits, increasing mutual awareness between persons with and without disabilities, and enhancing the knowledge of the people of Makassar using the foundation of Maqāṣid al-Sharı̄'ah concerning disabled people.