Ethical dilemmas in narrative research extend far beyond institutional review board approvals and formal consent procedures, manifesting as complex moral challenges that test researchers' judgment throughout the entire research process. Narrative research or inquiry in qualitative methodology traditions centers on human experiences, stories, meanings, and perspectives (Dahal, 2025; Dahal et al., 2024). It is for creating a unique ethical terrain in which researchers navigate tensions among methodological rigor and participants' rights, data-collection goals and relational responsibilities, and academic requirements and human dignity. At the same time, institutional ethical protocols provide essential frameworks that often present researchers with ethical dilemmas in the lived reality of conducting narrative research. Therefore, there is a need for contextual sensitivity, reflexive decision-making, and a philosophical grounding that goes beyond procedural compliance.

As researchers from the South Asian contexts\and having experience in narrative inquiry (see Dahal, 2022), we bring both insider perspectives on Eastern wisdom traditions and lived experiences of ethical challenges in qualitative research in general and narrative research. Our positions as faculty members at Tribhuvan University and the Kathmandu University School of Education shape our understanding of both Western ethical frameworks and Eastern wisdom traditions, influencing our interpretation of ethical dilemmas through cultural and professional lenses. This positionality enables us to examine how, while foundational, traditional Western bioethical principles may require integration with broader wisdom traditions that emphasize relational ethics, continuous reflexivity, and holistic approaches to human dignity. Thus, the complexity of ethical challenges in narrative research becomes apparent through the lived experiences of practicing researchers. Aligning with the above ethical dilemmas in narrative research or inquiry, we have considered the following reflections from three experienced narrative researchers who grappled with them firsthand:

The above narratives demonstrate the multifaceted nature of ethical challenges in narrative research by revealing dilemmas that emerge at the intersection of methodological requirements and human relationships. In this regard, R1's experience features the delicate balance between ethical compliance and authentic data collection, demonstrating how procedural ethics can sometimes create barriers to genuine engagement. Moreover, R2's struggle with anonymity and authenticity reveals the tension between protecting participant identity and preserving the richness of narrative data. On the other hand, R3's reflection on the researcher's focus and the benefits to participants underscores the complexity of managing multiple ethical considerations simultaneously while maintaining research integrity. Drawing from these lived experiences, qualitative researchers engaged in narrative inquiry often encounter moral dilemmas that extend beyond traditional ethical protocols. These challenges include maintaining participant trust while adhering to formal procedures (see R1), ensuring genuine anonymity without compromising data authenticity (see R2), and balancing theoretical frameworks with relational responsibilities (see R3).

Furthermore, researchers face ongoing challenges in obtaining meaningful informed consent, managing power dynamics, addressing emotional vulnerability, and navigating cultural sensitivities throughout the research process. Despite adherence to institutional ethical protocols, researchers frequently find their judgment tested in ways that go beyond theoretical guidelines when balancing data-collection demands with the need to uphold participant autonomy and dignity. For instance, R1, R2, and R3 (three experienced narrative researchers) are university faculty members who employed narrative inquiry methodology in their graduate-level research and ongoing academic practice. Their reflections, grounded in substantial experience addressing ethical dilemmas, offer foundational insights that illuminate the complexities inherent in narrative research ethics. These researchers provide personal perspectives that help explore issues of rigor and trustworthiness (Nowell et al., 2017) while grasping the multidimensional nature of ethical challenges in qualitative research processes in narrative inquiry. Their experiences demonstrate how ethical considerations become dominant when investigating individual experiences through storytelling, where preserving participant autonomy and dignity requires continuous ethical reflection rather than one-time procedural compliance.

With all of the above perspectives, the ethical dilemmas commonly encountered in narrative research, including power dynamics, emotional vulnerability, and challenges to anonymity, are well-documented in the literature (Dhungana, 2022). However, these challenges are amplified in narrative inquiry, given its emphasis on authentic storytelling and deep relational engagement between researchers and participants. The intimate nature of narrative data collection, which often involves sharing personal stories and vulnerable experiences, creates a unique ethical terrain that requires sophisticated approaches to informed consent, confidentiality, and researcher-participant relationships. Universities and schools maintain rigorous research approval procedures to ensure quality standards and ethical considerations. Nevertheless, while critical for guiding researchers through complex situations from research inception to final reporting, these institutional frameworks may be inadequate to address the nuanced ethical challenges that emerge in the lived experience of narrative inquiry. The recurring ethical tensions in narrative research suggest a need for expanded ethical frameworks that integrate procedural requirements with relational ethics, cultural sensitivity, and philosophical grounding.

Whilst Western ethical principles provide essential foundations, the complex, contextual, and relational nature of narrative research may benefit from integration with broader Eastern wisdom traditions that emphasize holistic approaches to human dignity, continuous ethical reflection, and the cultivation of virtuous research practices. Eastern wisdom traditions, including Buddhist and Hindu philosophical frameworks, offer complementary perspectives on understanding ethical conduct that emphasize selfless action (i.e., Karma), righteous duty (i.e., Dharma), compassion (i.e., Karuṇā), and mindful detachment—principles that may provide valuable guidance for navigating the ethical complexities inherent in narrative research. Thus, this review addresses the critical need to understand ethical dilemmas in narrative research by synthesizing empirical evidence with philosophical insights from Eastern wisdom traditions while taking into account reflections from three experienced narrative researchers who grappled with them firsthand. Hence, the study aims to identify recurring ethical challenges in narrative research and explore solutions that integrate procedural ethics with relational, cultural, and philosophical approaches to ethical decision-making. Drawing on both Western academic literature and Eastern wisdom traditions, this review, informed by Buddhism and Hinduism as articulated in texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, aims to develop a more holistic framework for ethical practice in narrative inquiry that balances methodological rigor with human dignity.

As researchers, we typically understand ethics as a set of rules and values that determine what is morally right or wrong, providing a specific guideline for research activities that ensure the integrity of researchers (Dahal and Luitel, 2022; Poole, 2021). Initially, we might think that the ethical consideration of research is to be considerate toward research participants, thereby upholding ethical values that maintain societal wellbeing by ensuring research is credible and confidential. When we began our research, several concerns arose, and we realized that it is not just about maintaining credibility and confidentiality in the work but also about ensuring a rigorous practice of addressing enduring ethical dilemmas and challenges throughout the research process (Reid et al., 2018). For instance, many “wh” (what, how, and why) questions regarding ethical considerations arose in our minds, and we found that ethics, in general, is about doing the right thing in research (Reid et al., 2018). Later, we realized that it is not just knowing right from wrong as considerate researchers, but also having clarity and even greater confidence in disseminating our work to the public. Having said that, in our quest to understand the value of ethics in every research activity, we explored the Eastern wisdom tradition, considering that it emphasizes the value and consideration of people and moral behavior (Merriam-Webster, 2023). To deepen our understanding, we explored the linguistic historical origins of ethics, tracing its derivation. Ethics derives from the Greek word “ethos,” which means custom or character (Merriam-Webster, 2023). Thus, it typically evokes the goodness or wrongness of human lives, as discussed in the Nicomachean Ethics (Cooper, 1985). There is no single, absolute definition of “Ethics” because it is constantly evolving over time and in context. It is continuously related to socio-cultural and political contexts, so ethical standards are significant for protecting the authenticity of the subject matter and ensuring the validity of scientific exploration (Stutchbury and Fox, 2009).

Considering the above, ethics has always been used to distinguish right from wrong behavior, grounded in the principle of “no harm” to others. It often influences our actions and decisions due to different times, contexts, and personal beliefs. Research practices are directed by ethical guidelines grounded in philosophical principles—namely, promoting the wellbeing of others, doing good, and avoiding harm to others (Dahal and Luitel, 2022; Reid et al., 2018). No harm to anybody means respecting autonomy, where creativity is encouraged. However, in cases of conflict or when faced with two or more conflicting options, one may feel trapped or conflicted, which can hinder creativity in research and may also result in a lack of clear solutions (Poole, 2021). So, ethics is always considered an incredible philosophical research method that is crucial for knowing (Clandinin, 2007) whether the researchers have done justice or have gone through the complete procedure to ensure research participants' rights of wellbeing and dignity with respect (Stutchbury and Fox, 2009). Ethical dilemmas ensure that the participants are respected with dignity by maintaining self-integrity and credibility throughout the research process. While discussing ethics as an ethical consideration in research, it is related to understanding the credibility and confidentiality of research (Ginting, 2022). Thus, ethics always ensures the application of moral principles and guidelines for conducting scientific research involving human participants, other living beings, or any subject matter (Steffen, 2016).

Therefore, the ethical consideration involves a principle aimed at minimizing potential harm to participants and researchers. These principles consistently emphasize honesty, fairness, and integrity toward oneself and others (Dahal and Luitel, 2022). Such studies helped researchers deepen their understanding of the duties and responsibilities of research work, particularly regarding research credibility and confidentiality (Ginting, 2022). Since ethics has been a crucial guiding principle for researchers, who are always aware of how to make their research credible in front of others. In doing so, we navigate the dialectical dilemmas (e.g., ethical challenges) in various contexts to make our research morally acceptable to the broader community. Keeping all these in mind, we questioned our general understanding of ethics. We examined ourselves as researchers and attempted to explore the actions (i.e., Karma) that we encountered during our research journeys. To this end, we began by exploring ethics and its dilemmas from Western to Eastern wisdom traditions and systematically reviewed 16 empirical studies (2014–2023). To explore ethics in greater depth, we examined Eastern philosophical traditions (Hindu and Buddhist traditions). We uncovered insights into the role of ethics in researchers' lives, particularly in fostering credibility and integrity within the research process.

Ethics always evokes the act without expectation, which means Karma without expectation of results and/or outcomes (Prabhupada, 1986). In other words, ethics refers to the rightness and wrongness of human behavior, as well as the consequences of one's actions, and is known as Karma in Eastern philosophy. It is always value-laden and rooted in traditions and philosophy, which makes it different from Western values. Some Eastern values in understanding ethics related to moral virtues (Dahal and Luitel, 2022) help prevent one from becoming immoral to others. In this regard, the different Eastern philosophies are ingrained in our daily activities, making us aware that we should perform any action (i.e., Karma) morally. Nevertheless, it is more contextual, as it differs from country to country, context to context, and even in South Asia and Nepal.

Similarly, we found Chinese philosophy “Confucianism,” which emphasizes moral virtues and living harmoniously with others and is known for its value of Ren. It primarily focuses on humanity, humanness, and benevolence (Sun, 2013), which entails treating people with kindness and empathy. There, we found “Taoist ethics,” which means living in accordance with the natural way of life, where Tao is understood as a natural path in Chinese religion (Mark, 2016). Everything needs to be aligned with the flow of nature so that things can be harmonious and make the world a better place to live in. Living life with oneself, others, and the world of changes is called leading a virtuous life as a whole. Likewise, Buddhism holds that ethics reduces pain and suffering, leading to enlightenment (Nirvana), the foundation of ethics (Goodman, 2021). These beliefs help guide people in living a moral and compassionate life without harming others. The study by Goodman (2021) revealed that ethics in Buddhism is akin to a moral discipline in life, involving a commitment to follow specific moral guidelines to foster trust in others. Trust is one of the most important tools for convincing research participants to participate, which is significantly important for researchers. Therefore, trust and rapport-building are essential elements for conducting research smoothly during the data collection process.

We have primarily discussed ethics and its significance in research; however, we aimed to introduce the concepts of selflessness and commitment to work (i.e., Karma in Sanskrit). However, science has brought a tremendous transformation in the name of technological and economic development. People have been on the safer side so far, but morally and spiritually, they have been away (Patra, 2020). In this materialistic world, when conducting research, one must be guided by moral values and possess virtues in every intention of the research work (Karma as a researcher). According to Hindu ethics, Dharma (virtue) refers to the moral duties on the path to righteousness. Aligning with one's own Dharma comes only from rigorous Niskama karma (selfless action) (Patra, 2020), which brings an unbiased reality to society. Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita conveys the wisdom of ethical living and detachment through Karma Yoga (Prabhupada, 1986), which refers to ethical duties and behavior of being (people). Since Karma is always related to Dharma, and one should move ahead without being attached to success or failure, non-attachment is a key concept in Karma Yoga, as outlined in the Bhagavad Gita. The essence of Vedic wisdom that comes from the Gita, which always encourages one to perform one's own duty, is not less than the right attitude and is not less than the substantial path of self-contentment. The Bhagavad Gita, commonly known as the Gita, is a revered Hindu scripture. It constitutes a key section of the epic Mahabharata. It presents a synthesis of Indian spiritual philosophies—integrating the Vedic principle of Dharma, the analytical paths of Jnana yoga (i.e., knowledge), and the devotional approach of Bhakti Yoga. Service and compassion toward duty are not just an external force that continues the journey, but also a purification of the mind, aligning with the inner purification of thoughts and intentions. Karma Yoga encourages one to live with integrity, selflessness, and righteousness while performing research duties and responsibilities. The study by Patra (2020) suggests that moral values in everyone's life significantly impact “professional, personal and societal development that makes life easier and happier” (p. 1026). Patra (2020) further emphasizes the holistic impact of moral values, suggesting that they serve as a foundation for both individual and collective wellbeing, thereby fostering positive relationships.

Since a good life is related to happiness, as Aristotle (1985, as cited in Spratt, 2017) stated, this philosophy raises questions about how people strive to achieve it. However, it is difficult to find a single definition of ethics as it is discussed in various ways above. Suppose it is always related to human action [i.e., behavior(s)], which is ever-changing over time and context. How can we establish a reliable model to maintain ethics and its dilemmas so that the complexity of human actions does not harm any research? Likewise, Othman and Abdul Hamid's (2018) study highlighted that sharing ethical values between two individuals is crucial during research to minimize any harm caused by human behavior. However, some ethical dilemmas arise in specific research contexts, adding complexity to the research. Therefore, navigating ethics from West to East has led to an understanding of its dynamic aspects and ever-changing complexity. As researchers, one must study ethics from the West to the East, as the world revolves around its philosophical foundations. To serve the purpose of this article, we have formulated two research questions to explore the ethical dilemmas that researchers faced and perceived during research, in general, and specifically in narrative research.

This article conducted a review aimed at developing knowledge synthesis of current literature on ethical concerns of qualitative research with a particular focus on narrative research, informed by Eastern wisdom traditions (i.e., Hindu and Buddhist philosophy) and the lived experience of three university faculty members who have employed narrative inquiry methodology in their graduate-level research and ongoing academic practice. The methods applied to review principles to reduce the risk of bias and increase the validity of results (Hansen et al., 2021) include a multistage process of identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and inclusion.

The synthesis results are narratively described, visually summarized, and tabularly summarized to enhance clarity and transparency. Table 1 summarizes the included studies and provides an overview of context and focus. A summary of the core ethical dilemmas identified, their categorization, and examples from the literature and participant responses is presented in Table 2. A flowchart (Figure 1) has been created to illustrate the selection process, encompassing the identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion phases. Figure 2 provides a conceptual framework that describes the relational aspects of ethics (i.e., the ethics of relation), including ethics toward participants, ethics of self-care, and ethics toward society or readers. Table 3 illustrates Eastern philosophy solutions to ethical dilemmas in narrative research. This methodical process provided a thorough, evidence-based illustration of ethical dilemmas in qualitative research, with a particular focus on narrative research and/or inquiry.

Narrative research offers insight through lived stories and demands careful ethical navigation as researchers face tensions between methodological rigor and participants' rights. So, involvement creates power dynamics that risk suppressing voices or exploiting vulnerability if not addressed by rapport (Yung, 2016; De Costa et al., 2021). Emotional risks affect participants and researchers—particularly those who share cultural or professional contexts—with possible distress, over-identification, and compromised objectivity (De Costa et al., 2021; Yung, 2016; Gillian, 2017). Maintaining anonymity presents a significant challenge in detailed narratives, where even subtle identifiers or the manner in which data is processed can inadvertently reveal a participant's identity (Othman and Abdul Hamid, 2018; Ngozwana, 2017). Consent should be viewed as an ongoing and dynamic process, allowing individuals to withdraw when sharing becomes emotionally burdensome (Ginting, 2022; Taquette and Borges da Matta Souza, 2022; Nowell et al., 2017). Ethical narrative research is inherently relational, emphasizing respect, cultural sensitivity, and minimizing harm while highlighting the mutual responsibilities of the researcher and the researched (Poole, 2021; Dahal and Luitel, 2022; Taquette and Borges da Matta Souza, 2022). Reflexivity, contextual awareness, and a deep commitment to ethical responsibility that extends beyond formal guidelines are essential for preserving trustworthiness and integrity throughout the narrative research process (Poole, 2021; Dahal and Luitel, 2022). The lived experiences of R1, R2, and R3 exemplify these ethical complexities in R1's struggle with participant trust demonstrates how inadequate communication compromises both ethical relationships and data quality. R2's challenge in maintaining anonymity while preserving narrative authenticity highlights the fundamental tension between protection and representation that is unique to narrative inquiry. R3's reflection on managing theoretical frameworks while maintaining relational responsibilities highlights the cognitive burden that ethical narrative research imposes on researchers. These experiences illustrate what we term “reciprocal vulnerability”—where both parties are exposed to emotional risk through sharing and receiving personal narratives.

Thus, narrative research offers insights through lived experiences, but it also presents ethical challenges that extend beyond standard procedural ethics. These challenges—such as power dynamics, emotional vulnerability, and anonymity—are intrinsic to the storytelling process and demand a more relational and reflexive approach. To address this, we propose an ethical framework grounded in Eastern wisdom traditions that foregrounds selfless action (Karma Yoga), righteous duty (Dharma), compassion (Karuṇā), and mindful detachment. Karma Yoga encourages researchers to engage with participants not to extract data but to fulfill the duty of understanding with integrity, thereby reducing coercive dynamics and fostering trust (Prabhupada, 1986; Patra, 2020). Dharma reframes ethical responsibilities, such as consent and anonymity, as ongoing, co-constructed duties rather than one-time formalities (Patra, 2020; Dahal and Luitel, 2022). Compassionate detachment, derived from Karuṇā and teachings in the Bhagavad Gita, enables researchers to strike a balance between empathy and clarity, thereby supporting participants without experiencing emotional exhaustion (Goodman, 2021; Prabhupada, 1986). Cultural sensitivity is addressed through Ren (benevolence), which calls for genuine relational engagement and respect for participants' values (Sun, 2013). Hence, these principles transform ethical tensions into opportunities for personal and professional growth, positioning the researcher as a reflexive practitioner guided by selflessness, duty, compassion, and mindfulness. When integrated with Western procedural ethics, this Eastern-informed framework offers a more holistic and humane foundation for qualitative research in general and narrative research in particular.

This integration suggests practical applications, including ongoing consent dialogues rather than one-time forms, collaborative anonymization in which participants help determine the appropriate identifying details, and mutual acknowledgment of vulnerability, creating frameworks for shared support. The framework addresses systemic challenges noted by (Charpentier-Jimenez 2023) regarding inadequate institutional ethical guidance for qualitative research by proposing a philosophical transformation alongside policy modification. Therefore, this review brings together empirical studies from 2014 to 2023 that suggest, considering the vast array of added empirical evidence and Eastern philosophical wisdom and tradition connected to multiple dimensions of confidentiality, that characterize both the problems and promises intrinsically to narrative research and/or inquiry. The standard ethical guidelines typically address issues such as informed consent, anonymity, power dynamics, emotional disclosure, and cultural sensitivity. The dilemma is that narrative research requires deep relational engagement, with ethical integrity linked to procedural processes (of reflexivity, relational ethics, and trust-building). Drawing on Hindu Karma Yoga and Buddhist compassion, the review presents an ethics-grounded conceptual framework centered on the balance between detachment and attachment, duty-practice, and mutual cleansing. It recommends context-specific processes, such as ongoing consent negotiations and co-constructed techniques for maintaining anonymity, as well as mutual consideration of vulnerability, to reduce power dynamics. Thereby, it asks scholars to dance with ethical tensions as sites of transformation and to couple Eastern and Western orienting frameworks, rendering ethical dilemmas not as barriers but as possibilities for richer integrity and co-constructed meaning-making.

This perspective transforms ethical challenges from obstacles into “educative spaces” (Park et al., 2016) that deepen understanding of research relationships and ethical development. The goal is not to eliminate ethical dilemmas inherent to narrative research but to transform them into opportunities for deeper ethical understanding, more authentic research relationships, and meaningful contributions to knowledge and social transformation.

Ethics is central to narrative research and inquiry, influencing trustworthiness and the persuasiveness of study findings. Researchers from all fields must navigate every stage involving ethical considerations to ensure the rights and well-being of individuals participating in their studies. It is also crucial to acknowledge the rights of those whose specimens and data are used in research, since their human involvement is inherent to the research process. The fundamental ethical principles of respect for research participants and protection of privacy are evident. This review examines ethical paradoxes and aspects of the research process from both Western and Eastern perspectives, contributing to a more complex understanding of the issues that confront narrative-oriented researchers. Discrepancies and misunderstandings of ethical guidelines might complicate the situation, leading to repeated ethical dilemmas throughout the research process. Identifying and preempting ethical issues is essential to ensure quality in any research project. Before conducting interviews or collecting data, interviewers should be well-versed in consent forms, interview records, and information to emphasize the importance of informed and voluntary participation. From the review, reflective of the agreement, the fundamental ethical issues in qualitative studies encompass informed consent, anonymity, privacy, voluntarism, the right to withdraw, a conducive and friendly space, and confidentiality, which are highly valued. As a result, any infringements or lack of understanding of ethical values give rise to ethical issues and the possibility that research may lose its course entirely. To further enhance the ethical quality of research, researchers should give greater attention to established, well-defined, and discipline-specific ethical guidelines. Training and workshops on ethical conduct can help researchers identify and proactively manage ethical challenges.

Additionally, fostering a collaborative culture among researchers who share experiences will enhance their ability to tackle ethical dilemmas in narrative research, particularly in qualitative studies. Regularly involving ethical audits and reviews throughout the research process may ensure commitment to ethical standards, protect participants' rights, and enhance the trustworthiness of research findings. Thus, educational institutions and grant agencies should promote ethics as a foundation for the responsible conduct of research in any form.

This review features the importance of reflexive, relationship-based ethical frameworks for narrative work, grounded in the need to respect participants' dignity and maintain the researcher's integrity. Drawing from the Eastern wisdom traditions—Karma Yoga (selfless action) and Dharma (right duty)—the article suggests that ethical discipline be built on foundations that engender trust and respect, transcending procedural legalism. The procedures in which power dynamics, emotional vulnerability, and cultural sensitivity intersect and give rise to dilemmas are discussed, and the implications for future practice are considered, including the development of discipline-specific ethical guidelines for qualitative researchers, reflexivity, and the cultivation of learning communities. Institutionalizing these measures would establish the dialectic of methodological rigor and ethical responsiveness as a hallmark of research and/or inquiry. The review is limited by its methodological and contextual boundaries. The review identified only 16 original studies (2014–2023), potentially missing more subtle ethical issues in underrepresented settings or in non-English-language publications. Also, using researcher-reported dilemmas (e.g., R1–R3 narratives) presents the risk of subjective bias, as experiences were recalled and selected retrospectively. Innovative as they were, the incorporation of such Eastern philosophical constructs as Karma Yoga and Dharma for empirical validation in research for universality.