The stages of change constitute the core component of the transtheoretical model. The stage of Change is the core component of the Transtheoretical Model. Yin Bo (2006) provided a detailed explanation of the Transtheoretical Model as applied to physical exercise behavior, categorizing the stages of change in physical exercise into five distinct stages: precontemplation (no intention to engage in physical exercise within the next 6 months), contemplation (planning to engage in regular physical exercise within the next 6 months), preparation (planning to start physical exercise within the next 30 days and having already taken some preparatory steps), action (already participating in regular physical exercise for less than 6 months), and maintenance (having engaged in regular physical exercise for more than 6 months) (15). The classic Transtheoretical Model (TTM) defines the “Action Stage” as the phase where an individual has already begun regular physical exercise but has not sustained it for more than 6 months. This definition implies the assumption that “initiating exercise” and “forming a relatively stable routine” can be depicted using a unified time threshold. However, based on preliminary interviews and observations in this study, it was found that within the localized context of physical exercise behavior among rural older adults in China, there exists a transitional state between “initial participation” and “forming a routine.” This state is often overlooked but holds critical theoretical significance as a threshold. Many rural older adults, after initially participating in physical exercise, do not immediately develop stable exercise habits. Their exercise frequency, duration per session, and choice of activities often exhibit significant fluctuations within a week, with behavioral stability and habit strength notably weaker compared to those who have already established a regular exercise pattern. If individuals in this “initiated but not yet regularized” state are grouped together with those who “have already formed a relatively stable exercise pattern but for less than 6 months” into a single action stage, it would not only statistically obscure substantial differences in behavioral characteristics, cognitive levels, and contextual needs between the two groups but also blur the distinction between two distinct intervention objectives: “how to encourage sustained participation” and “how to help solidify habits.” This would weaken the explanatory power of the theoretical model for real-world behavioral change and reduce the precision of stage-specific interventions. Therefore, while adhering to the fundamental stage division logic of the Transtheoretical Model, this study introduces the supplementary dimension of “behavioral regularity/stability.” It further subdivides the Action Stage into action I stage (already participating in physical exercise, but irregularly and for less than 6 months) and action II stage (already participating in regular physical exercise but for less than 6 months). Consequently, the exercise behavior of older adults is classified into six stages: precontemplation stage, contemplation stage, preparation stage, action I stage, action II stage, and maintenance stage (abbreviated as PC, C, P, AI, AII, M). This refinement aims to enhance the model’s adaptability and relevance within the Chinese context and to support the investigation of exercise behavior stages among rural older adults.

Based on a review of prior research concerning the application of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) to exercise behavior, it has been established that behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors serve as significant determinants influencing exercise behavior change (13). Consequently, in the design of this study’s questionnaire, the investigation will be structured across these three dimensions of related factors. Additionally, to clarify the variations and characteristics in service demands across different behavioral stages, the expression of demand for public sports services is also integrated into the questionnaire content. The questionnaire content was designed across four sections: behavioral factors, cognitive factors, exercise environmental factors, and demand for public sports services (see Table 1). The assessment of behavioral factors includes exercise frequency, duration per session, exercise intensity, and types of physical activities. The assessment of cognitive factors was based on a scale developed with reference to the research outcomes of Dong et al. (16). This scale consists of 10 items encompassing dimensions such as health promotion, disease prevention, and emotional experience. Responses were collected using a 5-point Likert scale. To facilitate clearer cognitive bias analysis and simplify subsequent data processing, the responses “Strongly Agree,” “Agree,” and “Neutral” were collapsed into a single “Agree” category and assigned a score of 1. The responses “Disagree” and “Strongly Disagree” were combined into a “Disagree” category and assigned a score of 0, forming a dichotomous variable. The assessment of environmental factors for exercise was based on a scale designed with reference to the research outcomes of Zhang and Xu (17). This scale consists of 10 items covering dimensions such as fitness facilities, social interaction, exercise organization, and exercise atmosphere. Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores representing a greater perceived level of importance. The assessment of the demand of public sports service was based on a survey scale designed by referencing the specific items outlined in the National Basic Public Sports Services. The scale consists of nine items (e.g., “Is there a need to construct sports facilities suitable for older adults?”). Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree), with higher scores representing a stronger perceived demand.

This study employed a cross-sectional survey design. Based on multi-stage stratified sampling, rural older adults in Ningde (Fujian) in the eastern region, Shaoyang (Hunan) in the central region, and Guanghan (Sichuan) in the western region were surveyed. A total of 2,239 questionnaires were distributed. After excluding 572 invalid responses, 1,667 valid questionnaires were obtained, comprising 887 males (53.2%) and 780 females (46.8%). The distribution of participants across different stages of exercise behavior is presented in Table 2. It should be noted that the cross-sectional design does not allow for tracking the temporal evolution of exercise behavior in the same individual. Therefore, this study reveals the association patterns between exercise behavior stages and related factors at a single point in time rather than establishing strict causal relationships. Causal inferences require further validation through longitudinal studies.

Regarding variable processing, considering the questionnaire structure and sample distribution, the sports cognition variable was dichotomously coded based on whether relevant cognition was present (0 = absent or weak cognition, 1 = present or strong cognition). This approach, on the one hand, helps avoid the issue of small cell frequencies in statistical analyses when certain response options have limited sample sizes, which could affect the stability of chi-square tests and stage comparison results. On the other hand, it facilitates clearer group comparisons across different stages of exercise behavior. It is important to note that dichotomization reduces the granularity of measurement to some extent. Therefore, in interpreting the results, the focus is primarily on the threshold effect of “whether cognition reaches a certain level,” without overextending inferences about subtle gradations in cognitive levels.

The general questions in the questionnaire underwent retest reliability testing using split-half reliability coefficients, with the average split-half reliability coefficient r = 0.73 (p < 0.01) in the Public Sports Service Demand Scale for Older Adults Questionnaire. This indicates that the retest reliability of the general questions in the questionnaire is good. For the reliability assessment of the questionnaire’s scales, a combined approach of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was employed to evaluate measurement consistency. Results showed Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.83, 0.86, and 0.89 for the scales, with KMO values of 0.74, 0.87, and 0.83, respectively. Bartlett’s sphericity test significance levels were all below 0.05. In conclusion, the Public Sports Service Demand Scale for Older Adults exhibits good reliability and validity based on these statistical analyses.

The survey results (see Table 3) indicate significant differences (p < 0.001) in exercise frequency, duration, and intensity among rural older adults across various stages of change. Overall, these metrics demonstrate an evolutionary trend of “increasing from low to high, then stabilizing” as individuals progress through the stages.

Regarding exercise frequency, the highest number of participants (108, 53.4%) in the action I stage exercised once per week or less. In contrast, the highest proportions exercising three times per week or more were found in action II stage (59.5%) and the maintenance stage (87.0%). This suggests that the exercise behavior of rural older adults tends to evolve toward higher frequency as they progress through the stages (action I stage→action II stage→maintenance stage), meaning regular exercise habits gradually form in the later stages of exercise engagement.

For exercise duration, both action I stage and action II stage participants predominantly engaged in sessions lasting between 31 min and 1 h (48.5 and 43.6% of participants, respectively). However, older adults in the maintenance stage were more likely to exercise for 1 h or longer per session (45.8%). This demonstrates a progressive characteristic where exercise duration evolves from “moderately controlled sessions” to “actively extended durations” as individuals advance through the stages.

In terms of exercise intensity, older adults across all stages preferred low-intensity exercise characterized by “light sweating.” The peak in exercise intensity occurred in action II stage, where “moderate sweating or more” accounted for 42.5% of participants. In the maintenance stage, however, the proportion of moderate or higher intensity exercise declined to 25%, suggesting that long-term exercisers may have voluntarily reduced their exercise load or lacked ongoing scientific guidance.

In terms of exercise modality choice, “brisk walking or running” remained dominant across all three behavioral stages (approximately 80% or more). However, in action II stage and the maintenance stage, participation in organized and group-based activities such as “aerobics and square dancing” and “traditional ethnic sports” showed an increase. This indicates that as individuals progress through the stages, exercise forms gradually expand from simple, low-threshold aerobic walking to more diversified activities that incorporate social interaction and structured guidance.

In summary, the stage progression from action I stage→action II stage→maintenance stage is characterized by continuous increases in exercise frequency and duration, maintenance of moderate exercise intensity, and a shift from single to diversified exercise modalities. This aligns with the behavioral change pathway of “from trial action to stable maintenance” in the Transtheoretical Model, indicating that the results demonstrate strong theoretical explanatory power.

The survey results (see Table 4) indicate that the overall sports cognition level of rural older adults tends to strengthen with progression through exercise stages, though significant differences exist across various cognitive dimensions. Overall, older adults demonstrate relatively high awareness of the general benefits of physical exercise, such as “promoting health” (SD = 0.90), “enhancing physical fitness” (SD = 0.90), and “extending longevity” (SD = 0.81), with average scores exceeding 0.8. In contrast, awareness of the role of physical exercise in preventing chronic diseases like “preventing heart disease” (SD = 0.61), “preventing hypertension” (SD = 0.57), and “preventing osteoporosis” (SD = 0.54) is generally weak, with average scores remaining around 0.5.

According to analysis of variance and inter-stage comparisons, significant differences exist across all 10 sub-items of sports cognition at different stages of exercise behavior (p < 0.001). Notable improvements in multiple cognitive aspects—such as “promoting health,” “improving mental health,” “increasing social opportunities,” and “fostering a sense of achievement”—primarily occur during the transition from the “preparation stage” to “action I stage.” This suggests that the critical behavioral initiation point from “intending to exercise” to “starting to exercise” serves as an important window for a leap in sports cognition levels.

While overall cognition shows an upward trend, scores for awareness of “preventing heart disease,” “preventing hypertension,” and “preventing osteoporosis” remain consistently low across all stages (approximately 0.5–0.7 points). More importantly, no significant differences were observed in these three cognitive areas between any two adjacent exercise stages. This indicates a “structural gap” in rural older adults’ awareness of the role of physical exercise in preventing chronic diseases, and this cognitive shortcoming is not naturally addressed as their exercise experience accumulates.

During the transition from “action I stage” to subsequent stages (action II stage, maintenance stage), the extent of improvement in most cognitive items diminishes, and differences become less significant. This suggests that once older adults begin exercising and enter the action stage, their foundational sports cognition is largely formed, with subsequent stages showing evident cognitive consolidation.

In summary, the development of sports cognition among rural older adults exhibits characteristics of imbalance and stage-specific thresholds. On one hand, general health awareness improves with exercise participation, achieving critical breakthroughs during the behavioral initiation phase (preparation stage→action I stage). On the other hand, awareness of the role of exercise in preventing chronic diseases remains persistently low, representing a prominent gap in the cognitive dimension. These findings suggest that generalized sports promotion has limited impact on enhancing cognition among older adults who are already exercising. Instead, targeted education on specialized knowledge, such as chronic disease prevention, should become a key intervention focus across all stages—particularly for those who have not yet started exercising or are in the early stages of participation.

As shown in Table 5, the factors “safety of participation” (SD = 4.30), “convenience of participation” (SD = 4.02), and “availability of dedicated sports facilities” (SD = 3.99) had average scores around 4.0. These are the three most prominent concerns for older adults across all stages when participating in physical exercise, serving as foundational guarantees for exercise engagement, and their importance does not vary significantly across stages. In contrast, “support from friends” (SD = 3.17) was the least correlated factor. Within the specific socio-cultural context and life realities of rural China, the daily activity circles, decision-making dependencies, and emotional support of older adults primarily revolve around the family. Social interactions with peers may be more centered on casual conversation rather than participating in organized physical exercise together, which explains why the average score for “support from family” (SD = 3.68) is notably higher than that for “support from friends” (SD = 3.17).

The results of the analysis of variance indicate that there were no significant differences across adjacent stages for “safety of participation,” “convenience of participation,” “cost of exercise participation,” and “support from friends.” This suggests that safety and convenience are fundamental needs throughout the entire process of exercise decision-making among older adults and do not change with variations in exercise stage. The study found that significant differences in the ratings for the factors “availability of dedicated sports facilities” and “availability of exercise guidance” emerged between the “preparation stage” and “action I stage” (P_P-AI < 0.001). This indicates that access to facilities and professional guidance is highly correlated with the critical transition point for older adults from “intending to exercise” to “starting to exercise.” With the exception of the factors mentioned above, significant differences in the remaining factors were primarily observed between the “precontemplation stage” and “contemplation stage.” This suggests that the emergence of the intention to engage in exercise behavior is the most “sensitive window period” during which environmental factors exert their strongest influence.

In summary, a dynamic association pattern exists between environmental factors and the exercise behavior stages of rural older adults. During the behavioral initiation phase (precontemplation stage→contemplation stage), creating a comprehensive supportive atmosphere for older adults is essential. In the behavioral activation phase (preparation stage→action I stage), providing facilities and professional guidance to older adults becomes critical. In the behavioral regularization phase (action I stage→action II stage), the role of sports organizations becomes more prominent. This provides clear empirical evidence for implementing stage-specific and priority-focused environmental interventions.

As shown in Table 6, the data indicate that rural older adults have relatively strong desires for all aspects of public sports services, with average need scores ranging from 3.97 to 4.42. Specifically, the demand levels for “physical fitness monitoring” (SD = 4.42), “sports facilities” (SD = 4.41), and “sports and fitness knowledge” (SD = 4.34) were relatively high. In contrast, the demand levels for “institutional development” (SD = 4.13), “sports promotion and mobilization” (SD = 4.06), and “training of key facilitators” (SD = 3.97) were relatively lower. Overall, the evolution of public sports service demand across stages is not characterized by linear progression. A notable decline in multiple service demands was observed in the “preparation stage,” forming a demand trough. This may be attributed to the fact that older adults in this stage possess the strongest intrinsic motivation and have higher confidence in overcoming initial barriers, thereby temporarily reducing their explicit reliance on certain types of external support.

Significant changes in the demand scores for “sports guidance” and “sports organizations” primarily occurred between the “precontemplation stage” and the “contemplation stage.” This reveals that, when the intention to exercise first emerges, the expectation for professional guidance and socialized platforms becomes prominent. These services are psychologically perceived as key “catalysts” for lowering the entry barrier and increasing the credibility of exercise.

Significant surges in the demand scores for “sports facilities” (P_P-AI<0.001) and “sports leaders” (P_P-AI<0.01) occurred during the transition from the “preparation stage” to the “action I stage” (e.g., significant stage difference P-AI for the demand of “sports facilities”). This indicates that, during the critical shift from “intending to exercise” to “starting to exercise,” the urgent need for tangible support (facilities) and local facilitators (leaders) is instantly activated. These represent the most direct foundational conditions supporting the first step into exercise.

In comparisons between adjacent stages (PC-C, C-P, P-AI, AI-AII, AII-M), the demands for “sports and fitness knowledge,” “institutional development,” and “sports promotion and mobilization” showed no significant differences across any adjacent pairs. This suggests that rural older adults lack a clear, differentiated perception of these “soft” service systems related to knowledge dissemination, institutional safeguards, and promotional efforts. This may stem from the chronic absence or superficial implementation of such services in rural areas.

In summary, public service provision must shift from a “one-size-fits-all” approach to “stage-adapted” delivery. During the pre-exercise phases (contemplation stage, preparation stage), the focus should be on providing professional guidance and information about sports organizations to facilitate the conversion of intention into action. During the behavioral initiation phase (preparation stage→action I stage), it is essential to ensure the availability of sports facilities and the presence of community sports leaders to support older adults in commencing exercise. Meanwhile, strengthening “soft” services—such as sports knowledge dissemination, institutional development, and promotion—constitutes a foundational, cross-stage effort required to address the current cognitive gap among rural older adults.

In previous studies on the relationship between exercise stages and exercise levels, Wilson et al. (18) found that individuals at higher stages of exercise behavior typically report higher levels of exercise engagement. The results of this study also show a similar correlation pattern: the exercise frequency and duration per session among rural older adults generally increase as their behavioral stages progress. This cross-sectional finding aligns with the direction of Wilson’s conclusion. However, after entering the maintenance stage, the self-reported exercise intensity of the older adults in the sample did not continue to rise; instead, it showed a certain degree of decline, with more individuals preferring moderate-to-low intensity levels, such as “light sweating.” This phenomenon may be related to long-term exercisers voluntarily reducing their exercise load for self-protection, the combined effects of chronic conditions and changes in physical capacity, or the long-term lack of systematic, continuous exercise guidance tailored to different stages in rural areas. The specific underlying mechanisms require further investigation in subsequent studies. The recently published Scientific Exercise Guidelines for Older Adults (2023) also addresses the staged nature of exercise behavior in older adults and emphasizes the principle of progressive overload. However, it does not provide specific answers to questions such as how to progress appropriately or what considerations should be taken at different stages. The patterns of intensity variation and exercise modality choices observed in this study provide some evidence for the practical necessity of strengthening stage-specific exercise guidance and safety management in rural contexts. Regarding exercise modality choices, this study found that walking and jogging are the primary forms of participation for rural older adults, with activity choices across all stages highly concentrated on a few low-barrier aerobic options. This aligns with the findings of scholars such as Ding et al. (19), Chen (20), and Li and Wang (21), who observed that older adults generally prefer low-intensity aerobic activities (e.g., brisk walking, jogging, square dancing). This concentrated activity structure reflects the practical constraints faced by older adults in terms of health status, exercise experience, and risk tolerance. On the other hand, it also suggests that the current public sports provision in rural areas remains limited in terms of activity variety, organizational forms, and professional guidance, leaving relatively little room for older adults to explore and choose independently.

Based on the behavioral characteristics and activity preference patterns described above, it is necessary at the policy and practice levels to more closely align existing fitness guidelines and exercise prescription systems with the exercise behavior stages of rural older adults. First, in the development of guidelines and prescriptions, the stage classifications of the Transtheoretical Model can be incorporated to provide tiered, actionable recommendations for exercise frequency, duration, intensity, and modality types at different stages. In particular, for individuals in the Action and Maintenance stages, specific guidance on how to reasonably control exercise loads and avoid overexertion or premature withdrawal while ensuring safety should be provided. This would address the “post-peak decline in intensity” phenomenon observed in this study. Second, in the areas of promotion and education, stage-specific guidance should be disseminated to rural communities through grassroots health service institutions, township (street-level) sports organizations, and village-level activity platforms. This would improve the accessibility and comprehensibility of guideline content for older adults and reduce behavioral deviations caused by information asymmetry. Third, in terms of implementation and service provision, while continuing to ensure access to low-barrier activities like walking, diversified activity types and organizational forms that match the needs of different stages should be systematically introduced. For example, entry-level and progressively adjustable activity combinations could be offered for individuals in the Preparation and Action stages, while more varied group-based and socially engaging exercise options could be provided for those in the Maintenance stage.

Sports cognition serves not only as a prerequisite for physical activity behavior but also as a key factor influencing an individual’s adherence to and sustainability of exercise routines. However, this cognitive capacity is not static throughout the behavioral change process. Gao (22) found that as individuals progress from lower to higher stages of exercise behavior, their perceived benefits of exercise gradually strengthen, and their intrinsic motivation correspondingly increases. This study similarly identified significant differences in the sports cognition of rural older adults across different stages, with a clear trend of enhancement observed in the stage distribution. The distinctive finding, however, is that significant differences do not exist between all adjacent stages. Significant differences between neighboring stages are concentrated specifically between the preparation stage and action I stage, while few significant differences are observed from action I stage through the maintenance stage. In other words, within this sample, the differences in sports cognition levels are more pronounced between the early stages of “not yet taking action” (precontemplation stage, contemplation stage and preparation stage) and the stages of “already exercising.” In contrast, cognition tends to stabilize at a higher level among the stages where individuals are “already active.” The relevant results indicate: a stronger association exists between higher sports cognition levels and “whether exercise has been initiated” (i.e., crossing the threshold from preparation to action I stage), whereas the relationship between cognition and the long-term maintenance of exercise behavior is not as linearly strong as expected. It is important to emphasize that cross-sectional data cannot determine whether “increased cognition prompts individuals to enter a higher stage” or “individuals who have already entered a higher stage develop increased cognition through exercise experience and information exposure”—both directions are plausible. Furthermore, rural older adults with higher education levels, better health literacy, adequate family support, and higher income exhibit significant stage-specific differences in sports cognition and exercise behavior stages. This is particularly evident at the critical transition point from the Preparation stage to the initial action stage, where a higher consistency between the two is observed. The results further reveal that rural older adults possess relatively high levels of cognition regarding the benefits of exercise for “promoting health,” “enhancing physical fitness,” and “extending longevity.” This aligns with the trend observed in earlier research by Zhai et al. (23) and Zheng and Jiang (24), where older adults gradually shift from viewing exercise as “useless” to “valuable,” indicating that the macro-level cognition of “exercise is beneficial” has gained some foundation among rural older adults. In contrast, cognition related to preventing specific chronic diseases such as hypertension, heart disease, and osteoporosis remains at a notably low level, with no significant differences observed between adjacent stages. This indicates a widespread, cross-stage cognitive gap among rural older adults regarding the role of exercise in chronic disease prevention. Notably, the Opinions on Building a Higher-Level Public Service System for Fitness and Physical Activity explicitly advocates for promoting exercise intervention programs and methods for common chronic diseases and champions the concept that “exercise is medicine” (25). The findings of this study empirically reveal a gap between policy advocacy and the actual cognition of older adults at the grassroots level, particularly in the dissemination of knowledge about exercise interventions for chronic diseases.

Based on the observed correlation patterns, two targeted practical implications can be proposed. First, education and advocacy regarding the role and value of exercise in preventing and managing chronic diseases should be prioritized as a key task to address the “cross-stage common cognitive gap” among rural older adults, rather than merely reinforcing existing awareness of “general health benefits.” Second, given the finding that cognitive differences are more pronounced between the preparation stage and action I stage, sports knowledge dissemination efforts at the rural level should moderately shift their focus forward. Priority should be given to covering populations in the precontemplation, contemplation, and preparation stages who have not yet established stable exercise behaviors. Through channels such as grassroots healthcare institutions, family doctor contract services, and village-level cultural and sports platforms, easily understandable and highly relevant exercise and health information should be continuously provided to these groups.

Previous research exploring factors influencing exercise behavior change has predominantly focused on the interaction between personal factors—including demographic characteristics, physical and mental health status—and exercise behavior change. Studies by Zhang et al. (26), Xu et al. (27, 28), Jiménez-Zazo et al. (29), Alves et al. (30), and Picorelli et al. (31), among others, have found that personal-level factors such as age, gender, marital status, education level, and economic income have direct or indirect effects on exercise behavior change in older adults. While significant progress has been made in this area, research specifically examining the relationship between exercise stages and contextual environmental factors—including exercise environment and social support—remains relatively limited. van Stralen et al. (32) identified that environmental factors such as social support and perceived facility accessibility influence the exercise stages of older adults, and these factors vary in their impact across different stages, providing important insights into the “environment-stage” relationship.

This study examined the subjectively perceived exercise environment of rural older adults across multiple dimensions—including safety of participation, convenience of participation, availability of dedicated facilities, access to exercise guidance, participation in sports organizations, and support from family and friends—and compared these perceptions with their exercise behavior stages. The results indicate that the average scores for “safety of participation” and “convenience of participation” were relatively high across all stages, with no significant differences between adjacent stages. This suggests that safety and convenience represent universal concerns for rural older adults at different stages, rather than factors that distinctly differentiate stages. In contrast, the scores for items such as “availability of dedicated sports facilities” and “availability of exercise guidance” showed a more noticeable increase during the transition from the Preparation stage to action I stage, while the importance rating for “participation in sports organizations” increased during the transition from action I stage to action II stage. This indicates that age-friendly facilities and professional guidance are more prominently associated with “whether exercise is initiated,” whereas organizational participation is more strongly linked to “the progression from initial action toward stable and regularized behavior.” Further analysis revealed that opportunities for participating in sports organizations, perceiving facility convenience, and accessing professional guidance are themselves influenced by a combination of structural factors such as health status, income level, transportation conditions, and family caregiving responsibilities. For example, older adults with better health, relatively more favorable economic conditions, and residence closer to village or community activity centers are more likely to frequently use sports facilities, receive professional guidance, and participate in sports organizations, while also being more capable of maintaining higher exercise frequency and regularity. Under a cross-sectional design, these structural advantages may manifest both as “higher environmental scores” and as “being in a higher stage,” potentially amplifying the observed association between environmental factors and behavior stages.

Based on this, policy and practical implications aligned with the correlation patterns observed in this study are proposed. First, given that “safety of participation” and “convenience of participation” are consistently high across stages with limited differences, they can be regarded as “baseline conditions” for rural older adults’ participation in exercise. In practice, measures should be taken to alleviate concerns about safety risks by improving safety standards for rural sports facilities, strengthening routine maintenance and accountability, and optimizing the layout of rural roads and sports venues. Additionally, enhancing temporal and spatial accessibility of exercise should be achieved by locating facilities nearby and arranging reasonable operating hours. Second, considering that “availability of dedicated sports facilities” and “availability of exercise guidance” demonstrated stronger stage differentiation during the transition from the Preparation stage to action I stage, when designing exercise intervention programs for rural older adults, targeted support in these two aspects could be moderately increased for individuals in the precontemplation, contemplation, and preparation stages. Examples include installing age-appropriate equipment in village or community activity spaces and offering regular introductory guidance courses to provide more suitable environmental support for the critical transition from “considering exercise” to “initiating action.” Third, for older adults already in action I stage or beyond, particularly those progressing toward action II stage and the maintenance stage, emphasis could be placed on developing diverse sports organizations such as senior sports associations, morning exercise groups, and square dancing teams. This would enhance their social connections and exercise norms, gradually integrating exercise into their daily routines. These recommendations do not imply that environmental interventions will inevitably lead to stage transitions. Instead, they aim to align the direction of public sports service environment development more closely with the stage-environment correlation patterns observed in this study, thereby improving the targeting and potential effectiveness of intervention resource allocation.

An analysis of variations in public sports service demand across different stages reveals that significant differences exist only for certain types of services. No significant differences were observed in the demand for “sports and fitness knowledge,” “institutional development,” or “sports promotion and mobilization.” This suggests a relatively low awareness and perception of these “soft” public sports services among rural older adults in China, indicating a persistent structural imbalance in rural public sports service provision that prioritizes “hardware” (facilities) over “software” (knowledge, systems, and so on) (33). On one hand, tangible services such as venues and facilities are more easily perceived and evaluated; on the other hand, soft services related to systems and governance at the grassroots level often exist in relatively implicit forms. Older adults have limited awareness of their content and functions, making it difficult for clear stage-specific differences to emerge in questionnaire responses. Concurrently, the distribution of public sports service demands among rural older adults across different stages does not follow a linear increase but rather exhibits a differentiated pattern of “slightly higher in early stages—relatively lower in the preparation stage—rising again in action stages.” Specifically, the overall demand level in the Preparation Stage is relatively the lowest among all stages, indicating that older adults in this stage already possess strong intrinsic behavioral motivation and are more inclined to rely on their own initiative to attempt exercise, showing a reduced subjective dependence on external services compared to those in the precontemplation and contemplation stages. However, once they actually engage in exercise practice, older adults in action I stage, action II stage, and the maintenance stage tend to develop heightened expectations for “higher-level services.” Nevertheless, this pattern may also be influenced by other factors, such as differences between the Preparation Stage sample and other stages in terms of health status, prior service usage experiences, and trust expectations regarding government services. As this study did not systematically control for these potential confounding factors, the observed stage-specific differences in service demand are more appropriately interpreted as “cross-sectional differences in public service expectations among groups at different stages,” rather than direct evidence that “changes in service provision lead to individual stage progression.”

Additionally, in comparisons between adjacent stages, this study found that significant differences in public sports service demands are primarily concentrated during the transition from the contemplation stage to the preparation stage and from the preparation stage to action I stage. On one hand, the demand scores for “sports guidance” and “sports organizations” showed an increasing trend during the transitions from precontemplation stage to contemplation stage and from contemplation stage to preparation stage. This suggests that in the early stages before stable exercise behavior is formed, older adults are more sensitive to expectations of “having someone to teach” and “having a group to join.” On the other hand, the demand for “sports facilities” and “sports leaders” increased more noticeably during the transition from the preparation stage to action I stage, indicating that when older adults are ready to begin actual exercise, suitable physical spaces and key facilitators become more prominent in their subjective demand structure. In contrast, between action I stage and the maintenance stage, most service items showed no significant differences in demand, reflecting that once exercise behavior is integrated into daily routines, the role of public sports services shifts more toward maintenance support rather than acting as a triggering threshold. It is important to note that these “stage-sensitive windows” may also intersect with differences in health status, income levels, and prior service usage experiences among older adults at different stages. Therefore, caution should be exercised when translating these findings into intervention strategies.

Based on this, practical implications aligned with the correlation patterns observed in this study are proposed. First, while continuing to emphasize the construction of tangible infrastructure such as venues and facilities, deliberate efforts should be made to increase the supply of soft public sports services, particularly in areas like sports knowledge dissemination, institutional improvement, and sports promotion and mobilization. Enhancing the visibility and comprehensibility of soft service content for rural older adults will enable them to more clearly perceive the potential support of institutional arrangements, regulatory designs, and educational approaches for their exercise behavior, which is foundational for optimizing the effectiveness of rural sports governance. Second, in public sports service reforms, resource allocation could be moderately shifted forward to focus more on rural older adults in the pre-exercise stages (precontemplation, contemplation and preparation stage). This should particularly involve service items that show higher sensitivity in adjacent stage comparisons, such as “sports guidance,” “sports organizations,” “sports facilities,” and “sports leaders,” to explore service combinations tailored to stage-specific characteristics. For example, in the precontemplation and contemplation stages, efforts could focus on enhancing clarity about exercise pathways through sports guidance and information about sports organizations. During the transition from preparation to action I stage, priority could be given to ensuring the availability of age-friendly venues and facilitator teams to provide more direct support for “taking the first step.” Third, digital tools could be moderately introduced to promote the digital transformation of rural public sports services, establishing more convenient channels for demand expression and service matching mechanisms. This would enable rural older adults at different stages to more clearly articulate their specific needs for guidance, organizations, facilities, and facilitators through mobile terminals, village-level service platforms, and other means.