Sexual Violence (SV) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, or other act directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting. It includes rape, defined as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part or object” (1). SV is widespread in university environments and its prevalence among university students is a matter of considerable concern (2). Research indicates that SV in this context, which predominantly affects women, manifests in various forms. However, few studies make distinctions between different levels of severity. Moreover, reported prevalence rates vary according to the country or region in which the studies are conducted. A meta-analysis (3) examining studies from 21 countries reports a prevalence of sexual assault of 17.5% for women, 7.8% for men and 18.1% for transgender and gender-diverse individuals. In the United Kingdom, the prevalence of sexual harassment is reported to be 52.7%, with 20.5% of respondents experiencing at least one act of attempted or forced sexual touching or rape (4). In the European context, a study conducted in three universities (two in the Netherlands and one in Belgium) identified a prevalence of 56% for sexual assaults, with 65% of women reporting having experienced sexual assault. The study also indicated that the incidents reported were mostly unwanted sexual contact (touching) perpetrated by unknown men aged between 18 and 35 years (5). In the United States of America (USA), 17% of female university students report having experienced at least one instance of unwanted sexualized touching since enrolling, while 4.2% of men students reported similar experiences. Approximately 9% of female students have reported experiencing penetrative sexual assault during their time at university (6). A study (7) conducted in Spain found that 20.8% of female students experienced intimate partner SV. Specifically, 5% felt coerced into sex “just to avoid giving explanations,” 11.6% endured unwanted and unpleasant touching, 9.9% were pressured to perform specific sexual acts and 4.6% were forced to undress against their will.

Despite the high prevalence of sexual violence (SV) in university settings, a study conducted in Spain highlighted the difficulties students face in recognizing situations of SV (8). This factor, combined with the leisure contexts in which many of these incidents occur (9) and the role of alcohol consumption is frequently implicated in SV incidents (10). In the United States, 49.6% of young adults reported alcohol use in the past month (11). Alcohol consumption is a key predictive factor for SV perpetration, with perpetrators often reporting higher frequencies and quantities of alcohol use than non-perpetrators (12). Approximately half of SV incidents among university students occur when the perpetrator, the victim, or both have consumed alcohol (13).

In this context, alcohol-related blackouts (ARBs), defined as “gaps in a person’s memory for events that occurred while they were intoxicated,” play an important role. More than half of young adults and university students who drink report on experiencing ARBs (14). ARBs are believed to be involved in many SV incidents, particularly those in which either victims or perpetrators have consumed large amounts of alcohol (15).

In the context of sexual violence in nightlife, peer pressure also contributes significantly to alcohol consumption among university students, particularly men, and often leads to substantial increases in drinking behavior (16).

In light of this situation, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of sexual violence among university students, focusing on the identification of sexual violence behavior’s and self-recognition as victims and perpetrators, and to analyze the relationship between sexual violence and alcohol use, as well as other associated factors.

Figure 1 illustrates the prevalence of SV and the 95% confidence interval. A total of 79% of participants (n = 2,215) identified themselves as victims of Level 1 SV (low-intrusion behaviors’ involving non-physical sexual harassment), including 91.1% of women (n = 1,851) and 47.2% of men (n = 364). Among women, 71.8% (n = 1,458) reported experiencing Level 2 SV (situations where pressure or coercion is exerted but the victim is still able to avoid the unwanted sexual act), and 9.3% (n = 189) reported Level 3 SV (situations in which coercion results in the actual execution of unwanted sexual acts, representing a higher degree of physical violation and invasion of personal integrity).

In addition, 28.1% of men (n = 217) and 10.9% of women (n = 221) identified themselves as perpetrators of Level 1 SV. Although self-reported rates of involvement in SV are high across levels, women appear to recognize and identify SV more readily than men (Table 2).

The relationship between SV, study area and academic year is detailed in Table 3. Notably, students in the 4th to 6th academic year identify more situations of SV and are more likely to recognize themselves as both victims and perpetrators compared to students in earlier academic years (p < 0.005).

Alcohol consumption, measured in Spanish Standard Drinks (SSD), where 1 SSD equals 10 grams of alcohol, was notably high, with a mean of 18.84 (SD: 14.42), a median of 14.50, and an Interquartile Range (IQR) of 16.50. Furthermore, 39.6% of the students reported feeling pressured to drink alcohol, and 65% reported experiencing ARBs in the past year. Male students consumed more alcohol than female (p < 0.001), while students of Social and Legal Sciences reported the highest levels of alcohol consumption. No statistically significant differences were identified between alcohol consumption and academic year (Supplementary Material S1).

The relationship of SV with alcohol consumption variables is presented in Table 4. Participants who self-identified as either perpetrators or victims of SV, irrespective of severity, reported experiencing higher pressure to consume alcohol (p < 0.05) and a greater frequency of ARBs (p < 0.05). Furthermore, higher levels of alcohol consumption were linked to self-identification as a victim (levels 2 and 3) or as a perpetrator (levels 1 and 2).

Table 5 presents the regression analysis of self-recognition as victims of SV and self-recognition as perpetrators by sex, age, academic year, SSD, pressure to consume alcohol, and ARBs. The results of the logistic regression analysis indicate that the self-recognition as perpetrators is linked to males (levels 1 and 2), students in their 4th to 6th academic year (levels 1 and 2), pressure to consume alcohol (levels 1 and 2), ARBs (levels 1 and 2), and alcohol consumption (level 1). Conversely, self-recognition as victims is associated with being female, pressure to consume alcohol, ARBs and alcohol consumption, across all levels of severity.

The objectives of this study were to assess the prevalence of SV among university students, including identifying SV behaviors’ and self-recognition as victims and perpetrators, and to explore the relationship between SV and alcohol consumption, pressure to consume alcohol and ARBs.

In relation to SV identification, although nearly all students (98%) identified levels 1 (low-intrusion behaviors’ involving non-physical sexual harassment) and 2 (situations where pressure or coercion is exerted, but the victim is still able to avoid the unwanted sexual act) as SV, the identification of level 1 was slightly lower (91%). It is well-established that behavior’s involving greater violence are more likely to be identified as SV (8, 20). Moreover, the difficulty in identifying SV is particularly pronounced among men (8). This difficulty among young Spanish men may be attributed to persistent myths about sexual aggression, which are more prevalent among men than women. Such myths trivialize the SV experienced by women; for example, the belief that “when a man urges his female partner to have sex, it cannot be called rape” (21). Despite this trivialization, women experience significant negative consequences, such as feelings of disrespect, disgust, anger, shame or rape, particularly in cases of violence involving physical contact (levels 2 and 3) (22).

In terms of self-recognition as SV victims, our findings are consistent with a study conducted among Norwegian university students (23), which demonstrated that less severe forms of SV have a higher prevalence of victimization compared to more severe forms. Regarding the prevalence of self-recognition as level-2 SV victims (59.8%), similar results have been found in a European study (56%) (5). Additionally, women reported experiencing SV more frequently than men.

While only a small number of participants in our study admitted to perpetration, previous research involving university students has reported even lower prevalence rates. Notably, a higher proportion of perpetrators were identified as male (24).

In relation to alcohol consumption participants in our study reported consuming an average of 18.84 Spanish Standard Drinks (1 SSD = 10 g of alcohol) when they go out partying, equivalent to approximately nine mixed drinks. In recent years, binge drinking, defined as consuming 5 or more drinks within a two-hour period for men and 4 or more drinks for women, has become a prevalent drinking pattern among young people and adolescents (25). Our study did not specify a time frame; nevertheless, the levels of alcohol consumption observed were remarkably high. According to the WHO (1), Europe has the highest prevalence of alcohol consumption globally. The findings align with previous research indicating that men tend to consume more alcohol than women (26). Moreover, it is well-documented that young people often engage in heavy drinking during leisure time, as it is perceived to facilitate interpersonal relationships (27).

Regarding pressure to consume alcohol and ARBs, approximately 40% of the students in our sample reported experiencing pressure to drink. Previous research on university students has documented lower prevalence rates (9, 28). Consistent with similar findings among Spanish nursing students (9), 65% of the students in our sample reported experiencing ARBs within the past year. In contrast, studies conducted with American university students have reported lower prevalence rates, around 40% (26).

Numerous studies have emphasized the link between alcohol consumption, leisure and SV (29–31). Our research found that students identified as either victims or perpetrators of SV reported greater pressure to consume alcohol, experienced more ARBs, and displayed higher levels of alcohol consumption. It is widely acknowledged that social relationships are closely tied to alcohol consumption, with university groups often using alcohol to foster social bonds and enhance group cohesion. Challenging this cultural norm requires confronting deep-rooted traditions and significant peer pressure (32). Several studies have further associated excessive alcohol consumption, five or more drinks in a single day, with the perpetration of SV among young men (33, 34), with alcohol being perceived by perpetrators as a positive facilitator in sexual encounters due to its disinhibitory effects and its role in facilitating interpersonal relations (35).

This study identified a relationship between being female, experiencing pressure to consume alcohol, encountering ARBs, engaging in high levels of alcohol consumption, and being a victim of SV across all levels of severity. Other studies support these findings, demonstrating that women in leisure settings and alcohol consumption suffer from level 1 and 2 SV (verbal and physical harassment, cornering and groping) (35).

A notable strength of this study lies in its multi centre design and high participation rate, which enable more representative data collection and enhance external validity.

Furthermore, the study’s emphasis on identifying sexual violence behavior’s and situations, as well as self-recognition as sexual violence perpetrators, rather than solely focusing on victimization, is particularly commendable.

However, the study has several limitations. These include the inability to verify the accuracy of survey responses, the inherent restriction of establishing definitive cause-and-effect relationship due to the cross-sectional study design, and the reliance on a convenience sample, which constrains the generalizability of the findings to the wider student population.

Additionally, the study did not consider the gender identity and sexual orientation of participants.

It is also important to highlight the lack of consensus regarding the classification of sexual violence, which complicates comparisons across studies.

This study reveals a high prevalence of sexual violence among university students, consistent with international research and reflecting a persistent and concerning trend. The findings also show a clear association between sexual violence, alcohol consumption, and peer pressure within university leisure settings. However, existing evidence indicates that alcohol does not directly cause sexual violence but rather acts as a facilitator for individuals who already hold harmful attitudes and beliefs, thereby increasing the likelihood of situations in which sexual victimization may occur.

These findings highlight the pressing need for targeted prevention strategies aimed at addressing key risk factors. Moreover, the study emphasizes the importance of educational programs in raising awareness, promoting respect and accountability, and equipping students with the necessary skills to navigate social and leisure environments safely. Such initiatives are essential for reducing instances of sexual violence and fostering a safer, more inclusive university community.