Workers in the skilled construction trades play an essential role in the global economy, including Canada (1), the United Kingdom (2), and Australia (3), contributing to residential, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure projects. Within this sector, trade professionals, including bricklayers, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, welders, and heavy equipment operators, perform the hands-on tasks necessary to build and maintain physical structures. However, many of these workers, particularly electricians, face persistent challenges, including systemic disparities and widespread mental health concerns (4, 5). For example, the construction industry remains heavily male-dominated, with male workers comprising over 80% of the workforce (6). Furthermore, the skilled trades experiences elevated rates of mental ill-health and suicide compared to other sectors (5, 7, 8). In particular, 70% of construction industry workers report experiencing mental health issues like excessive stress (9). Commonly reported workplace stressors that contribute to mental health issues include work overload, poor working conditions, interpersonal conflict, and project role ambiguity (10). Long and irregular working hours, and frequently exceeding standard full-time loads, are associated with both adverse physical and mental health outcomes, including fatigue, sleep disruption, cardiovascular diseases, and burnout (7, 8, 11–13). Poor mental health is detrimental to worker well-being and is linked to increased risk of workplace injuries and fatalities (7, 14, 15). These issues are compounded by stigma surrounding mental health and limited access to support services (8, 16–18). Together, these challenges underscore the pressing need for systemic reforms and sustainable support to promote equity, improve mental health outcomes, and ensure the long-term viability of workers in the construction trades in Canada.

The skilled trades industry also has a high prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries, with studies reporting that approximately 50% of construction apprentices experienced musculoskeletal symptoms in the past 12 months (19, 20). These are injuries to the musculoskeletal system, including joints, ligaments, tendons, and muscles (21). Common musculoskeletal symptoms are frequently observed among apprentices in the skilled trades, including those affecting the wrists and hands, knees and feet, lower and upper back, neck and shoulders, elbows, hips, and thighs (22). Such injuries may occur due to excess strain on the body, commonly seen in physically demanding work. These patterns can be particularly harmful when repeated over extended periods and in poor working conditions (21).

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which comprise a significant portion of Canada’s skilled trades sector, face additional constraints due to limited financial, time, and human resources (23). These barriers can hinder the implementation of mental health initiatives despite substantial psychological distress among SME owners/managers. For instance, 36.8% of 217 surveyed SME leaders reported high or very high levels of psychological distress, exceeding rates in the general working population (24). This distress is linked to increased rates of both absenteeism and presenteeism, often resulting in significant productivity losses when individuals continue to work while unwell. Despite these challenges, research suggests that psychological distress can be effectively reduced through brief, low-cost interventions, highlighting a promising avenue for mental health support within resource-limited SME environments (12).

Structural inequalities intensify these occupational health challenges. In Canada, representatives from the electrical industry reported that 90 to 100% of workers who work on power lines in the field are men (25). This can create many challenges in the workforce, including cultures that facilitate discrimination and hostility towards women (26). Moreover, men in male-dominated industries are less likely to seek mental health help, despite being more likely to experience depression and related mental health challenges (27, 28). Gender and ethnic disparities have also been shown to influence psychological well-being. Due to the prevalence of harassment and discrimination in construction, female workers in the industry are more likely to report higher stress, lower job satisfaction, and poorer work-life balance than men (5, 29). In addition, facing challenges such as language barriers, discrimination and wage disparities is another complication that migrant and racialized workers experience (5, 10, 30). Risk exposure also varies by role; tradespeople and laborers encounter greater physical demands and higher substance-use risk, whereas supervisory roles carry heavier psychological demands related to time pressure and interpersonal conflict (23, 24). Additionally, the cultural stigma associated with mental illness that is reinforced by traditional masculine norms continues to discourage help-seeking among construction workers (30).

In Ontario, Canada’s most populated province, the skilled trades sector, including the electrical sector, faces chronic labor shortages alongside high physical and psychosocial demands. These challenges are compounded by persistent gaps in diversity, equity, and inclusion, which negatively impact worker health and well-being. While past literature has examined the effects of various sociodemographic and socioeconomic variables on the physical and mental health of construction workers, there is a lack of literature on how these variables specifically affect the occupational health of electricians in Ontario’s electrical sector. Furthermore, past literature focuses on outcomes such as work engagement rather than physical and mental health outcomes. Musculoskeletal symptoms and sleep are significant factors to consider given their strong influence on physical and mental health outcomes in high-demand occupational contexts.

Given this backdrop, the current study aimed to examine the occupational health outcomes that impact the well-being of self-employed electrical workers. The specific objectives are (1) to assess disparities in mental and physical health outcomes among Ontario’s electricians focusing on musculoskeletal symptoms, psychological distress and personal burnout; (2) to evaluate the relationships between work burden, job satisfaction, and indicators of sustainable employment; (3) examining gender-specific differences in psychological distress and occupational health to assess equity gaps; and (4) examining apprenticeship status and its association with health and work outcomes.

A total of 188 electrical workers in Ontario completed the survey, yielding a completion rate of 82.2%. Most participants identified as male (89.9%) and were white (77%): the mean age was 34.5 (SD 12.7) years. Participants reported a mean 9.60 (SD = 9.35) years of electrical-sector experience and 41.2 (SD = 5.64) h of working duration/week. Regarding education, 113 (60%) participants had completed a college-level education, 50 (27%) had completed high school, and 15 (8.0%) had completed a university degree. More than half of the participants were apprentices (58%). The full demographic characteristics are shown in Table 1.

The study adds sector-specific evidence on the well-being of electricians in Ontario. Among 188 participants, most identified as men and White, reflecting the characteristics of the Canadian electrical industry, which remains predominantly white and male-dominated. These composition details are important for interpreting generalizability. Furthermore, apprentices, electricians with less experience, and women showed a higher psychological distress compared to experienced electricians and men in the electrical industry.

This research found that electricians commonly experience Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorder symptoms in areas including the lower back, shoulders, and neck. These findings are consistent with previous studies, which indicate that skilled trades workers mainly reported symptoms affecting the neck, shoulders, and back (19, 22, 41, 42). Previous studies underscored MSDs as one of the most common occupational health problems in the skilled trades sector globally (43). Although not explored in our study, past literature has found that several occupational factors may contribute to the widespread prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal symptoms, including repetitive movements, forceful exertion, awkward postures, heavy lifting, and overhead work (43). The current study also found a higher prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms among apprentices as compared to non-apprentice workers. This finding is strongly supported in the literature, with Rosecrance et al. (2001) reporting musculoskeletal symptoms in more than 50% of apprentices within the last 12 months (19). Additionally, Merlino et al. (2003) found similar rates of MSD symptoms in the neck (31.85%), shoulder (27.9%), and most commonly in the lower back (54.4%) (22). Our current findings, along with past research, provides some insight into how the injury management of electrical workers may be further improved, particularly in terms of lower back, shoulder, and neck injuries. The present findings revealed that while average weekly working hours, years of experience, and sleep quality do not explain a significant portion of variance in psychological distress in electricians, the workers’ years of experience and sleep quality were significantly correlated to psychological distress. This finding aligns somewhat with past studies, which indicate that years of work experience and sleep quality are substantial predictors of psychological distress among construction workers (44, 45). The significant relationship between years of experience and personal burnout may be because, as they spend more time in their field, they learn how to manage their stressors better and develop stronger coping strategies and in turn strengthen their stress resistance (46, 47). However, regarding weekly working hours, this finding is inconsistent with past research, which found that longer working hours were significantly and positively associated with psychological distress (48). The results of our study may contribute to the ongoing conversation on distress in electrical workers, and the inconsistency between our results and past literature prompts other researchers to further investigate the relationship between these variables and verify our findings.

Additionally, our study found that there is a significant and negative link between years of experience and personal burnout, and conversely, a correlation between poor sleep quality and personal burnout. Our findings are consistent with past literature, which shows the same relationship among electrical workers (45). Our study is novel in its investigation of the relationship between sleep quality and personal burnout in electrical workers, as there is limited literature on the relationship between sleep quality and burnout in this population, though insufficient sleep has been found to correlate with burnout in a general worker population (49–51). Our results also indicated that average weekly working hours is not significantly associated with personal burnout. Though, this finding contrasts with previous research, which has consistently identified extended working hours as a key predictor of work–life conflict among construction employees (52). The inconsistency may be speculated to relate to the fact that some prior studies examined overall burnout rather than personal burnout specifically (49–51). Further research should separately examine whether working hours have a differential influence on various types of burnout among electrical workers.

Moreover, burnout is typically categorized into three categories: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a sense of reduced accomplishment, where individuals feel a lack of productivity and effectiveness (53, 54). It would be beneficial for future research to examine which dimension is influencing the outcomes. Interestingly, years of experience have been found not to significantly influence burnout in early-career construction management professionals in the United States, which somewhat contradicts our findings. The discrepancy may be due to the difference in the focus population, as our study only includes electrical workers. There is some likelihood that the effect years of experience have on personal burnout is only prominent in the electrical sector rather than the construction industry as a whole. Regardless, our study adds interesting insights to the exploration of predictors of personal burnout among Canadian electrical workers and lays the foundation for further research on personal burnout in this population.

This study found that women experienced a significantly higher level of psychological distress than men. These findings align with present literature, as previous studies have found similar results, with women facing considerably higher levels of psychological distress than men (55, 56). When speculating explanations, there are many potential ideas present in the literature. One study found that women in general were more likely to experience psychological distress when they are experiencing work-to-family conflict (55). In one qualitative study, women in construction cited that they experienced high levels of psychological distress due to multiple reasons, including dangerous work environments, gender discrimination, inadequate safety and protective equipment and a fear of negative consequences if they reported concerns (26). Moreover, these findings may also be a result of differences in reporting styles among sexes. Men tend to underreport mental health issues, with mental health service utilization being almost double for women in North America (57). However, this study had a small sample size of women. This may have facilitated more pronounced differences in psychological distress to appear between sexes. More research is needed to understand the specific relationship between differences in work environments and psychological distress experienced by women and men. Additionally, this study found no significant gender differences in years of experience or psychological distress. Although there is limited research examining this topic, one study found that work experience significantly predicted job autonomy, with no significant differences observed between women and men (44). This might mean that women and men experience similar instances of job stability as work experience increases, lowering the likelihood of experiencing psychological distress. Overall, our study helps contribute a novel finding that is limitedly explored in the construction electrical industry. Further research related to cause of the lack of significant gender differences in years of experience and psychological distress is needed to validate the findings of this study.

Our study further highlights that apprenticeship status is significantly associated with psychological distress among electricians, even though the overall model was not statistically significant. These findings are consistent with a growing body of research indicating that apprentices commonly experience elevated levels of psychological distress. Electrical sector apprentices reported higher psychological strain levels compared to workers and contractors in the same sector (45). Although speculative, many factors may contribute to these elevated levels. For instance, apprentices often suffer from long working hours, low wages, job insecurity, poor educational quality, and unrealistic expectations (58, 59). A further major contributor from the literature is workplace bullying, as well as a lack of general support. Bullying among construction industry apprentices is strongly associated with poor mental health outcomes, including greater psychological distress (60, 61). Similarly, the hierarchical structure and inadequate workplace support from workers were shown to exacerbate this effect and ultimately lead to an increase in vulnerability to distress (58). Lastly, practice readiness may play a role. Previous studies have found that the level of self-efficacy one has at work can predict the level of burnout experienced by workers (62). Moreover, one qualitative study found that the lack of work readiness in new graduate nurses creates aspects of psychological stress (63). More research is needed on electrician apprentices specifically to discover potential explanations for our findings.

Our study found that poorer sleep quality was associated with increased work-related burnout and job dissatisfaction. These outcomes are consistent with the emerging body of research in the construction sector, which demonstrates that poor sleep has a strong adverse effect on occupational health outcomes. One study found that decreased sleep quality is reported to influence job satisfaction through a serial mediation model (64). Moreover, Wendimu and Meshesha (2023) found that a large proportion of the construction worker sample experienced poor sleep quality, which was associated with low job satisfaction (65). Another study found that sleep difficulties were associated with elevated levels of work-related burnout (66). Among electricians specifically, work burnout was also correlated with sleep disturbances (45). Additionally, it has been found that among working individuals, sleep problems typically occur before low back pain and burnout symptoms (49). Chattu et al. in their research have concluded that sleep quality assessments are early risk indicators that help to reduce the incidence of wider range of morbidities (67). Therefore, this could demonstrate the need for sleep quality evaluations to be emphasized in health promotion programs as a crucial early risk indicator.

Taken together, this study created and used models that can align with the actions that advance the targets of SDGs 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11. Our findings align with SDG 3 targets by identifying risk factors for occupational ill-health, such as psychological distress and burnout, which can inform targeted workplace interventions to support healthier work lives for electrical workers. Within the framework of SDG 8 and 9, the findings of this study suggest that improving sleep conditions is integral to ensuring work is not only safe but also sustainable, in terms of electricians’ well-being and satisfaction. Work burnout and job satisfaction have a significant impact on retention, productivity, safety, and the overall quality of work.

Furthermore, our findings may inform the development of strategies catered to SDG 5 and 10. There is a need to develop workplace interventions that address the diverse lived experiences faced by various groups, including women. This will help ensure that workplace policies and practices support gender equality (SDG 5) and reduce inequality for marginalized groups (SDG 10). Lastly, our findings relate to SDG 1 and 11. Using apprenticeship status as a proxy of socioeconomic status, our findings suggest that socioeconomic conditions are linked to apprentices’ psychological distress including receiving lower wages, less schedule stability, and less support. Poor mental health can challenge apprentices’ ability to maintain stable employment. If apprentices are distressed and mentally unwell, their retention, performance, and satisfaction may suffer, which in turn may affect poverty reduction goals and impact broader community stability and sustainability. There is a need for workplace culture interventions to address psychosocial risk factors, including but not limited to fairness of treatment, support from supervisors and older colleagues, workload management, and clarity of expectations, to reduce distress among apprentices. Overall, by incorporating the SDGs to inform the study models, it provides a unique framework to understanding the occupational health of Canadian electrical workers and connects it to broader global development goals, highlighting the interconnectedness between personal well-being of workers and global sustainability.

Framed within the SDGs, this study offers important insights into the health and well-being of electricians within the Canadian electrical sector. Work-related musculoskeletal disorder symptoms remain a highly prevalent health issue, particularly affecting the lower back, shoulders, and neck, underscoring the need for further preventive strategies, ergonomic assessments, and targeted interventions. Poor sleep consistently emerged as a predictor of burnout and job dissatisfaction; these findings emphasize the importance of recovery and rest in maintaining the well-being, productivity, and safety of electricians. This helps to achieve the goals of decent work, economic growth, and industry, innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 8 and 9).

Although there was a small number of women in the sample, this study found that women were more likely than men to report psychological distress. This might indicate the need for further research investigating the challenges for individuals of varying genders. Our work emphasizes the imperative for workplace policies and interventions that address gendered experiences and promote inclusivity, in line with the objectives of gender equality and reduced inequalities (SDGs 5 and 10). Moreover, apprentices presented greater psychological distress compared to non-apprentices, suggestive of vulnerabilities linked to inadequate wages, job instability, workplace harassment, and insufficient support. Consequently, there is a necessity for focused workplace interventions that enhance apprenticeship programs and foster supportive workplace cultures, thereby promoting the goals of poverty alleviation and sustainable community development (SDGs 1 and 11).

This research demonstrates that various physical, psychological, and social factors interact to impact the health and well-being of electricians. To address these issues, we recommend working on developing plans that incorporate improved ergonomics, enhanced sleep and fatigue management, psychosocial support, equitable policies for both men and women, and fair apprenticeship structures. The electrical sector can help create healthier and more sustainable work environments while also contributing to the achievement of SDGs.