Female college students face many physiological barriers to sports participation. These barriers stem not only from individual physiological characteristics, but also from interactions with the sociocultural environment, which significantly inhibit their willingness and behavior to participate. Among these, physiological barriers mainly include menstruation-related issues and the risk of sports injuries, which can be systematically analyzed from the perspective of the social-ecological model. Li et al. (16) used the social-ecological model to explore the internal barriers to female college students’ participation in sports activities, emphasizing that key issues at the physiological level include the influence of personal external image and physical condition.

Specifically, female college students often avoid participating in physical activities or sports due to weakness and hormonal imbalances caused by menstruation (Factor Loading, FL = 0.800), a phenomenon supported by empirical research in the literature (16). For example, a survey of female college students aged 18–22 in China showed that physiological factors such as menstruation are major barriers, causing many students to voluntarily give up exercise during their menstrual periods, resulting in intermittent sports participation (16). This intermittent participation not only reduces overall activity frequency but may also trigger a vicious cycle: menstrual discomfort exacerbates negative emotions such as fatigue and pain, further weakening motivation to exercise. Romanova and Emelyanova (9) further expanded on this, finding that some female university students who engage in regular exercise experience delayed menarche, suggesting a complex relationship between exercise and physiological development. Their research indicates that delayed menstruation may stem from the disruption of the endocrine system caused by high-intensity exercise, but this “protective” effect only applies to specific groups. Most female college students avoid exercise due to menstrual discomfort, thereby inhibiting their willingness to participate (9).

In addition, female college students’ physical fitness, lack of knowledge and skills in sports significantly increase the risk of sports injuries, which constitutes another core physiological barrier. Sports injuries not only cause physical pain, but also trigger psychological fear, forming a “pain-avoidance” cycle that further inhibits sports participation (17). A study from Pakistan provides compelling evidence: a cross-sectional survey of 403 female college students revealed an injury incidence rate as high as 31.51%, with the most common types being cramps (46.5%) and sprains (45.7%). The primary causes included improper exercise techniques and insufficient warm-up (11). These data highlight the severity of skill deficiencies—for example, ankle sprains in sports often result from technical errors such as improper landing posture, while cramps are associated with dehydration or excessive fatigue (18). This risk of injury is particularly prominent in groups that lack regular exercise, as they have lower physical adaptability and are prone to injury during sudden activities (19). Chinese research in the knowledge base echoes this point: individual physiological factors (such as “menstruation”) are indirectly related to sports injuries, as physiological weakness during menstruation may reduce motor coordination and increase the probability of mistakes (16). More importantly, the psychological consequences of sports injuries cannot be ignored: a study based on the Athlete Fear Avoidance Questionnaire (AFAQ) found that female college students showed higher fear avoidance scores after injury, which led them to “convince” themselves to refuse to participate in sports activities to avoid pain (20). This psychological mechanism may form a long-term barrier to participation.

Female college students’ self-identity and body image anxiety constitute fundamental barriers to their daily sports participation. The core contradiction of this barrier lies in the conflict between the socially and culturally constructed conservative culture of women and the design of sportswear (16). For example, in a Chinese study, some female college students refused to exercise because they were unwilling to expose their bodies during sports and physical activities (FL = 0.661) (16).

At the behavioral motivation level, the absence of psychological resilience and cognitive biases create persistent barriers. Female college students are more likely than males to discontinue exercise programs (4). The root causes lie in two main aspects: first, female college students typically have lower self-efficacy (e.g., “unable to perform complex movements”); Second, they have less perseverance than male college students (4). This trait is closely related to misperceptions—most female college students view physical activity as an “extreme sport” that is difficult to master, and therefore reject participation in physical activity (10).

This misconception also leads to a lack of psychological preparation for sports participation. A cross-sectional survey of female West African university students studying in the UK found that Joy said, “I did not do much sport back home either, I chose lessons after school that helped me to learn how to sew clothes. Sport is not really my thing, but since I’m training to be a nurse, I understand why it’s important for your health… I would probably like to try something like badminton” (12). This indicates that many female university students fail to recognize the importance of physical activity for their studies and daily lives.

In addition, the negative reinforcement of emotional memories during sports participation further constitutes a deep psychological mechanism that causes female college students to reject sports participation. Unpleasant past experiences with sports also inhibit female college students’ willingness to participate in sports. For example, mistakes made in physical education classes due to personal reasons can cause their sensitive emotions to perceive negative emotions such as “embarrassment” and “shame.” When such obstacles are compounded by academic pressure and social anxiety, it creates psychological internal friction, making sports participation a symbol of emotional burden (21), causing many female college students to avoid participating in group sports.

Sociocultural stereotypes regarding women’s participation in sports continue to pose a deep-rooted obstacle. Cross-cultural studies show that some groups still view women’s participation in strength-based or competitive sports as “inelegant” and “inappropriate,” and this prejudice significantly dampens female college students’ enthusiasm for participation (9). In the Chinese university environment, parents and teachers generally support female students’ participation in sports less than male students, and the curriculum system emphasizes theoretical teaching and weakens practical training, further reinforcing social structural barriers (16). These gender role expectations are continuously transmitted through social construction.

The personality characteristics of women make female college students more directly and profoundly affected by interpersonal networks. For example, they may choose whether to participate in sports based on the sports participation of those around them and the support they receive from others. Specifically, existing research points out that female college students’ sports decisions are highly dependent on social support systems, and their willingness to participate is strongly correlated with peer participation (FL = 0.812), family member attitudes (FL = 0.746), and the values of their social circles regarding sports (FL = 0.821) (16). When environmental changes disrupt existing social structures, participation habits often cease—as in the case of West African students in British universities, where Sade candidly stated: I exercise less now than when I lived back home; I do not walk or run as much because I drive” (12). This disruption is particularly pronounced among cross-cultural study groups, with 45% of respondents in a Jordanian study abandoning exercise due to the loss of their original exercise partners (21).

On the other hand, social sports and the atmosphere of sports activities also affect female college students’ attitudes toward sports participation. In general, female college students commonly express their perception of male dominance in the field of sports (FL = 0.802) and their concern about possible harassment in public places (FL = 0.554) (16).

In different sociocultural contexts, religious beliefs and local sociocultural values shape the way they construct and treat life, influencing female college students’ attitudes and willingness to participate in sports, reflecting more profound cultural constraints (22). Taking Islamic culture as an example, because Iran is a country with “generally strict” management of women’s physical exercise among Islamic countries, the degree of obstruction to female college students’ sports participation is not high, but there is still a certain impact (3). For example, Kanaan et al. (21) conducted nine interviews with 90 female college students in Jordan through semi-structured focus group interviews and found that the Muslim culture of the local society is an important factor preventing female college students from participating in sports. In the interviews, they found that about 45% of female college students had a negative attitude toward sports participation, such as “I do not like sport because the physical education teachers in school did not encourage us to love sport, in addition the school facilities at that time were not encouraging” and “I did not practise physical activity in the early stages, teachers never taught us the benefits of sport, PE lessons were not implemented” (21). This phenomenon is related to the influence of Jordanian traditional culture on women. The study mentioned specific views of female university students, such as “doing physical activities in an open area clash with my religious beliefs” and “I am unable to participate in physical activity if I can be seen by men” (21).

Female college students in different countries have similar views. For example, female college students at the University Technology Malaysia said that their social, religious, and cultural norms restricted them from participating in sports such as swimming (10). This is because in sports such as swimming, they must wear swimsuits that expose large areas of skin, which makes them feel uncomfortable, especially in the presence of men (10).

It is worth noting that the influence of religion is dialectical in nature. For example, Turkmen (23) conducted a questionnaire survey on religious beliefs and sports participation among 412 female college students at a Turkish university and found a weak positive correlation between the degree of religious belief and sports participation. This suggests that moderate religious activities may promote physical practice through collective rituals (23). This complexity prompts us to move beyond the simplistic notion that “religion is an obstacle” and instead explore the promotional elements within religious culture.

Environmental barriers to female college students’ sports participation stem from structural imbalances in the environment. There are significant gender differences in the allocation of sports resources in colleges and universities, with most sports facilities giving priority to male-dominated competitions and training, resulting in a systematic reduction in women’s access to resources. Generally speaking, except for a few schools with more resources, most female college students face limited access to sports facilities, and this imbalance is further manifested in physical space constraints. For example, Li et al. (16) found that many female college students reported facing issues such as outdated and unsanitary facilities (FL = 0.875), outdated and remote sports facilities (FL = 0.866), overcrowded sports facilities (FL = 0.861), inconvenient transportation to exercise venues (FL = 0.764), and safety hazards in facilities (FL = 0.763).

In addition, the natural environment also affects female college students’ willingness to participate in sports, such as direct sunlight in summer, rainy or windy weather, and cold weather in winter (16). This point was also highlighted in Kamal et al.’s (10) study, which found that female college students worry about sunburn or skin darkening from direct sunlight, and the image anxiety caused by UV exposure leads women to associate physical activities with “skin darkening = diminished attractiveness.”

Furthermore, some universities lack suitable venues and facilities, depriving students of the conditions necessary for exercise and ultimately causing them to give up trying. For example, Mary stated, “I loved doing track when at school, it does not seem as popular over here. I have never seen a track and field facility, but that would be good as it would bring back good memories” (12). Similarly, some universities lack promotion and information about sports equipment, sports field locations, and other facilities, forcing female college students to invest additional time and resources to participate in physical activities. One interviewee, Margaret, stated, “Well…I do not think there is much advertising. I saw people advertising sports at the fresher’s fair (university orientation), but I have not seen any advertising since. Some of the information said sports hall, but I have no idea where the sports hall is.” (12) This disconnects in spatial awareness forces women to spend extra money exploring venues, ultimately undermining their motivation to participate in sports.

To address physiological barriers to sports participation among female college students, multi-level strategies based on the social ecological model need to be designed, ranging from individual education to environmental optimization, to alleviate barriers and increase participation rates.

First, for menstruation-related barriers, the core strategy is to strengthen science education and information dissemination to correct misconceptions and promote adaptive exercise programs. For example, incorporating a “Women’s Physiology and Exercise” module into university physical education courses, covering the benefits of moderate exercise (such as improving mood and reducing fatigue) and safety guidelines for exercise intensity (24). Existing research suggests that such education should incorporate cultural sensitivity—for example, using social media to disseminate scientific information and emphasizing the positive impact of exercise on hormonal balance (16). Additionally, developing personalized exercise plans is crucial: Romanova and Emelyanova (9) advocate adjusting activity types based on the menstrual cycle (e.g., recommending low-intensity yoga during menstruation), which can reduce feelings of weakness and maintain participation continuity. Furthermore, schools should mandate that sports facilities provide menstruation-friendly resources, such as hygiene products and rest areas, to minimize barriers related to women’s physiology (3). Another important consideration is concerns related to physiology and health. For example, the relationship between participation in school teams, dance or club activities, and menstruation or other physiological issues can influence some female students’ decisions to participate. Schools should provide health education and support services, as well as opportunities for participation (25).

Secondly, regarding the risk of sports injuries, the focus should be on skill training and preventive education to enhance physical fitness and reduce technical errors. Saragiotto et al. (19) emphasize that structured training can significantly reduce the likelihood of sports injuries, particularly common issues such as sprains and cramps. Specifically, university curricula should incorporate “fundamentals of sports medicine” content, teaching proper techniques (such as landing cushioning methods) and warm-up procedures (18). Memon et al. (11) also confirmed this view, finding that a significant proportion of sports injuries stem from technical errors, and thus recommended embedding real-time coaching feedback into sports activities to correct movements. In addition, psychological intervention is also indispensable—based on AFAQ research, cognitive behavioral therapy can help female college students rebuild their confidence in sports (20).

Thus, through the comprehensive use of these methods, physiological barriers can be effectively alleviated and sports participation among female college students can be promoted.

Addressing psychological barriers requires a multi-faceted, coordinated intervention strategy. The primary objective is to provide maximum psychological support for female college students. For example, in conservative cultural regions (such as Jordan), providing women-only facilities and flexible dress codes can reduce conflicts between physical activity participation and women’s religious and cultural norms (21).

To address the lack of confidence in their abilities, a step-by-step achievement system needs to be established. For example, by setting small weekly goals for sports participation (such as “complete 3 sets of 10 min of rope jumping”), female college students can gradually build their willingness to participate in sports and their psychological resilience. Alternatively, group sports can be used to form mutual support groups of 5–7 people to increase peer support for sports participation, thereby reducing feelings of frustration and helplessness during the process of participating in sports. Specifically, universities can lower the psychological threshold for initial participation by establishing “women-only sports communities” or dividing interest groups by discipline (such as a medical school women’s sports club). The strategy of ‘group support + association’ here is consistent with the large sample study on the determinants of university students’ participation in amateur and club sports, and emphasises the importance of associations and mutual support networks in sustaining female university students’ participation in sport (26).

At the same time, the theory of staged behavioral intervention can be introduced to emphasize the benefits of sports in alleviating academic stress and improving concentration during the “hesitation stage.” During the “action stage,” a peer incentive system (such as a sports check-in point system) can be used to strengthen the sense of belonging (4).

To improve female college students’ perception of sports participation, universities should highlight “light exercise” scenarios (such as campus walking and dance classes) in their promotional materials, incorporate sports awareness training into orientation courses for new students, and invite female sports experts to give health lectures specifically for them to raise female college students’ awareness of sports participation through personal experience (27).

In addition, traumatic memories associated with female college students’ sports participation need to be rebuilt through cognitive behavior. First, sports courses should be used to promote the re-experience of female college students’ sports participation (recreating the scene in a safe environment). Second, gradual guidance and teaching should be used to establish positive emotional markers for them (covering negative memories with positive experiences). Then, actively use the teaching process to reconstruct the meaning of memories of failure (defining “failure” as a learning process). And share stories with peers who have had similar experiences to reduce the harm of negative emotions. In addition, individual personality traits influence exercise behavior through self-efficacy and exercise motivation. Therefore, when designing cognitive behavioral interventions and setting stage-based goals, attention should be paid to both enhancing self-efficacy and stimulating intrinsic motivation (28). This will help female college students overcome traumatic memories from sports participation and develop a habit of participating in sports.

To eliminate social barriers and promote sports participation among female college students, it is first necessary to improve gender bias in sports and reconstruct the narrative of sports culture. First, with the help of university publicity departments and sports organizations, documentaries showcasing diverse images of women in sports (such as strength training, soccer, and other traditionally “male” sports) should be produced and released on campus media platforms. These documentaries should subtly emphasize female college students’ strategic thinking and team leadership in sports competitions, weaken the single aesthetic standard of “elegance,” and provide female college students with good psychological preparation for participating in sports activities.

Subsequently, a resilient social support network for female college students’ sports participation should be built to strengthen the sustainability of sports participation. For example, cross-cultural sports communities can be established in international schools to create “sports culture exchange groups” for female college students from different countries, where local students can lead them in experiencing their country’s sports activities and invite them to share the characteristics of their home countries’ sports (such as traditional West African sports dances or traditional Asian sports and cultural activities). This is because large-scale research and practice show that community participation, such as through clubs, interest groups and cross-cultural associations, can significantly increase the likelihood of college students continuing to play sports. Therefore, colleges and universities should support and regulate these communities (26).

In addition, when female college students generally perceive the male-dominated nature of sports and are concerned about possible harassment in public places, schools and society should work together to create a safe, inclusive, and supportive sports environment. For example, female security guards should patrol around sports venues at night, and emergency call devices should be installed to enhance the sense of security for female college students participating in sports activities after school.

In different societies and cultures, religious beliefs and local social and cultural values impose profound normative constraints on behavior and cognition (22). It is necessary to respect and understand religious beliefs and values in different cultural contexts, while exploring ways to encourage female college students to participate in sports activities while respecting these beliefs. For example, we can try to promote female college students’ participation in sports through policy support and strengthened publicity. Specifically, the government and social organizations should formulate and implement relevant policies to encourage and support female college students’ participation in sports activities. This may include policies on financial support, scholarships, and the construction and maintenance of sports facilities. Through these measures, we can create more opportunities and conditions for female college students to participate more freely in sports activities and enjoy the fun and benefits of exercise. At the policy and advocacy levels, it is important to note that the three elements of ‘accessibility of facilities’, ‘cultural respect’ and ‘health services’ should be integrated, rather than relying solely on cultural persuasion. This reduces participation costs through institutional measures (29).

In order to solve the dilemma of the environment on female college students’ sports participation, it is necessary to build a gender-responsive environmental support system and rebuild the space resource allocation mechanism for female college students’ sports participation.

First, facility accessibility and usage arrangements are important environmental factors influencing female students’ participation—institutionalized arrangements for facility provision, time allocation, and privacy protection can significantly increase participation rates (especially in university environments where facilities are insufficient or usage conflicts are severe) (29). “Time–space” gender zoning management can be implemented, reserving 50% of indoor venue usage rights for female students during the prime time after school (16:00–19:00). The focus should be on renovating existing basic sports facilities and incorporating privacy protection in changing rooms into safety audit standards.

In terms of the natural environment, consideration can be given to installing low-cost semi-open dome designs and retractable awnings in open-air venues to improve existing sports venues. Second, culturally appropriate sports venues should be designed to mitigate the negative impact of social culture on female college students’ sports participation. For example, in religiously sensitive areas, adopt a “visual separation + independent access” model to build women’s sports centres. This could involve using frosted glass to separate male and female activity areas, ensuring compliance with religious requirements without compromising sports space (23, 24).

Finally, idle spaces should be repurposed. Low-utilization areas such as building corridors and mezzanines can be converted into micro-fitness stations equipped with yoga mats, jump ropes, and other lightweight equipment (16). At night, the underground garage of the gymnasium can be opened simultaneously, with anti-slip flooring laid to create a roller-skating area, addressing the “no place to move” dilemma (29).

In summary, the elimination of environmental barriers must transcend the simple logic of increasing facilities and shift toward gender-conscious spatial production. When sports venues become safe, visible, and culturally appropriate spaces of empowerment, female college students can truly break free from the paradox of “wanting to move but having nowhere to move” and achieve the reconstruction of bodily autonomy. At the same time, the integrated intervention pathway of teaching, community and venue has been shown in several studies to contribute to the development of a sustainable ecology of women’s sport participation (26, 27).